
W$:i. 






Qm 






.(>.■: 







;4':::i'' 



^i^t: 



rws: 



f^jhrr 







Fig. 1. 

THE EAR AS IT IS TODAY AND AS IT WAS (ORIGINALLY). 

Pod Corn on tlie right, and the "Pascal Ear" (Reid's Yellow Dent) 
Champion of America in 1907, on the left. This ear sold for $150 at 
the auction of the Iowa Corn Growers' Association. 



{Frontispiece) 




ORN 



GROWING JUDGING 

BREEDING FEEDING 

MARKETING 



for the 

FARMER and STUDENT of AGRICULTURE 

A TEXT-BOOK fur AGRICULTURAL 

COLLEGES arid HIGH SCHOOLS 




M. 



By 
L. BOWMAN 



Professor of Farm Crops at Iowa State College of Agriculture and 

Mechanic Arts; Head of the Farm Crops Section of the 

Iowa Experiment Station 

B. W. CROSSLEY 

Assistant Professor of Farm Crops at Iowa State College of 
Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 

Ames . Iowa 



I'LBLISHKD BY THE AUTHORS 

Copyriglit applied for in the United States, Canada, Argentine 

Republic and British Dependencies of South Africa 

by M. L. Bowman and B. W. Crossley, 

November, 1908 



The Kenyon Printing a Mfg Co. 

PRINTERS AND BINDERS 

Des MOINES Iowa 



H X3 



T'/y/S book is dedicated to 
one of God's noble men; a 
kind hearted, whole-souled, un- 
tiring laborer for better agri- 
culture; your friend, our friend. 
Professor P. G. Holden. 

The Authors. 



LIBRARY of COiNGRESS 
Twc Copie» Received 

OopyriafU Entry 
CLASS CL_ ^A<^ NO' 

■2. 2. 2. 7 "2. «g 

COPY A. 



PREFACE 

For years there has been a great demand for some book covering 
more completely the various phases of corn growing, judging, breed- 
ing, feeding and marketing. It has been the object of the Authors 
to make this book of the greatest possible value to the farmer, to the 
student, and to every one interested in this, America's greatest cereal 
crop — Corn. Particular pains have been taken to gather and to 
present in this book the most valuable material that the corn grovs^er 
and the Experiment Stations have to offer on this subject. No time 
or expense has been spared to do this work as thoroughly as possible. 
How well we have succeeded must be left to the judgment of the 
reader. 

We are very much indebted to Professor P. G. Holden, who has 
frequently been consulted during the 3 1-2 year's time in which this 
book has been in preparation. To Professor S. A. Forbes, Illinois 
State Entomologist, who has kindly permitted our using the illustra- 
tions of the corn insect pests. To Professor A. H. Snyder, Dr. R. E. 
Buchanan, Professor L. G. Michael, Professor J. E. Guthrie, Professor 
W. H. Stevenson, Professor H. G. Bell, Mr. James A. King, Mr. L. C. 
Burnett, and Mr. Geo. A. Wells, Secretary of the Western Grain 
Dealers' Association, for their very careful reading of manuscript. 
For the very complete report and data found in Chapter II, we are 
indebted to Mr. Murl McDonald. Also to Mr. A. E. Quaife and Mr. 
E. S. Haskell for the assistance rendered in the preparation of Chapter 
XVII and V, respectively. We are indebted to Mr. C. V. Gregory, 
Bulletin Editor of the Iowa Experiment Station, for his careful proof 
reading and assistance in the preparation of the Index. 



The Authors. 



Ames, Iowa, October 2y, 1908. 
Issued December i, 1908. 




^ r? 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I. 
HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT. ^0 C 

Corn, a native of the Western Hemisphere; thought to have been developed 
from teosinte; cultivated by the Indians 1 

CHAPTER II. 
ACREAGE, DISTRIBUTION. PRODUCTION AND VALUATION. 

ACREAGE DEVOTED TO CORN GROWING. 

In the United States, in each of the ten leading states. 

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 

In the world, in the United States, in each of the ten leading states. 

VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP. 

In the United States, in the ten leading states. 

THE PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE I'NITED STATES. 

The production of corn in the States of Mexico — Sonera, Lower California, 
Chihuahua, Coahuila, Sinaloa. Durango, Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas, Aguascali- 
entes, Colima, Vera Cruz, Yucatan; Argentine Republic; Brazil; Austria-Hun- 
gary 4 

CHAPTER III. 
CLASSIFICATION AND BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 
CLASSIFICATION. — The pod, pop, flint, dent, soft, sweet, and starchy sweet corns. 
BOTANICAL CHAR.\cTERisTics OF CORN. — Plant structure, nature of growth, pri- 
mary and secondary roots, root structure, conditions affecting root growth, 
stalk, figuring leaf surface, drouth resisting characters, the flower, male or 
staminate flower, female or pistillate flower, development of kernel. 42 

CHAPTER IV. 
GERMINATION AND THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. 

GERMINATION. — Conditions of germination, vitality, moisture, proper tempera- 
ture, oxygen. 

THE GROWTH OF PLANTS. — Esscutials of growth for green plants, constitution, wa- 
ter, proper temperature, light, plant food 61 

CHAPTER V. 
CLIMATE AND SOIL IN ITS RELATION TO CORN. 

CORN AND CLIMATE. — Effect of cHpiate on distribution; effect of climate on char- 
acter of growth; climate and varieties; effect of climate on composition; re- 
lation of corn growing to precipitation; relation of corn growing to tem- 
perature. 



CONTENTS. 

COBX AND soil, FpuTiLiTY. — Soil adapted to corn; influence of soil on composition 
of corn; continuous growing of corn; humus; necessity of rotation; ma- 
nures; fertilizers; a rotation for the corn belt 78 

CHAPTER VI. 
SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED CORN FOR PLANTING. 

Buying foreign seed; harvesting seed corn; the effect of moisture and freez- 
ing on the vitality of corn; the need of testing seed corn; making the germina- 
tion test; shelling and grading; calibrating the planter; the corn grower's re- 
minder 102 

CHAPTER VII. 

CARE OF THE CORN CROP. 

PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING. 

I 

PREPARATION OE THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. 

PLOWING THE GROUND. — Objects of plowing; points of merit in plowing; depth of 
plowing; fall plowing; spring plowing; plowing sod. 

TREATMENT OK PLOWED GROUND BEFORE PLANTING. With a diSC, Speclal hafrOWS, 

smoothing harrows, roller. 
PLANTi.NG WITH CHECK Ro%VER. — Time of planting; depth of planting; distance be- 
tween rows; number of stalks per hill; what is a perfect stand?; replanting 
of corn. 

DRILLING CORN. 

LISTING. — Preparing the ground; use of the lister 146 

CHAPTER VIII. 
CULTIVATION OF THE CORN CROP. 

CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN.— Objects of tillage; harrowiug corn; 
depth of cultivation; frequency of cultivation; kinds of cultivators. 



CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. 



.188 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE CARE OF THE CORN CROP. 
HARVESTING AND STORING THE GRAIN. 

HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR.— Stage of maturity; time of harvesting; methods 

of harvesting; cost of harvesting; methods of unloading. 
STORING CORN.— Principles involved; cribs; shrinkage of corn 202 

CHAPTER X. 
THE COST OF GROWING CORN. 
American Agriculturist and Orange Judd Farmer Estimates.— What is cost?; 
labor and wages; teams and maintenance; horse power and machinery; taxa- 
tion; rent, implements, interest; labor and its statistical treatment; removing 



CONTENTS. 

stalks; plowing; harrowing; listing; fertilizing; planting; cultivation; gather- 
ing and cribbing; fodder; cost with allowance for interest on investment; cou- 
i'iusion. 

Other Estimates. — In Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, "Wisconsin, Kansas 212 

CHAPTER XI. 
DISEASES AND INSECTS ATTACKING CORN. 

DISEASES OF CORN PLANT. 

(!orn smut; the Burrill Bacterial disease; corn wilt; leaf blight; maize rust. 

INSECT ENEMIES. 

JNSF-CTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROWING CROP. — The blaclv headed grass maggot; the 
seed corn maggot; wire worms; cut worms; the sod web worm or root web 
worm; white grub; corn bill bug; corn root aphis; chinch bug; army worm; 
stalk borer; northern corn root worm; grasshopper; ear worm. 

iNSKCTs INJURIOUS TO STORED CORN. — Augumois grain moth; the grain weevil. 
229 

CHAPTER XII. 
THE MARKETING OF CORN. 

HOME MARKETS. 
COMMERCIAL MARKETS. 

PRIMARY MARKETS. — Line elevator systems; independent elevators; farmers' co- 
operative elevators; corn enroute to market. 

TERMINAL MARKETS. — Receipts of corn at the principal markets; Chicago as a 
terminal market; Omaha as a terminal market; corn values; steps in the 
inspection of corn in the terminal market; handling of grain on the cash 
floor; commercial grades of corn; grain storage; federal inspection. 

TERMINAL-EXPORT MARKETS. — Enumeration of principal terminal-export markets; 
freight rates from terminal to terminal-export markets. 

EXPORT MARKETS. — Amount of com exported; countries purchasing export corn; 
prices of export corn; export freight rates; American grain trade certifi- 
cates 261 

CHAPTER XIII. 

BOARDS OF TRADE. 
THEIR ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS METHODS. 

The Board of Trade of the City of Chicago; Omaha Grain Exchange; specu- 
lation in the grain trade; futures, why and how futures are settled without 
delivery, when delivery is unnecessary, how deliveries are made, settlements 
and settlement and delivery prices, delivery price; bucket shops. 312 

CHAPTER XIV. 

THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN. 

THOSE DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL. — By mechanical and milling methods; by me- 
chanical and chemical processes; by fermentation. 



CONTENTS. 

TnOSE DERIVED FROM THE COB. 

THOSE DERivEn FROM THE PLANT ITSELF.— FroDi the stalk; from the leaves; from 
the husks ^^^ 

CHAPTER XV. 
COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF CORN. 

THE GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS. 

PHYSICAL sTRiTTiRE.— Tip Cap; hull: horny glutenous part; horny starchy part, 
white starchy part; germ. 

PHYSICAL ANALYSES. 
CHEMIC4L COMPOSITION. 

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. — Protein; carbohydrates and fats, crude fiber. 

iNOBOANic COMPOUNDS. — Ash, water. 

THE FEEDING VALUE OF CORN. — Percentage composition; digestibility; palatability 

and mastication; cost of production and preparation for feeding; corn vs. 

other cereals; corn as a feed for horses, hogs, sheep, milch cows, young 

cattle. 
FEEDING VALUE OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN. — Gluteu meal, com bran, gluten feed, 

corn oil meal, corn oil cake, starch feeds, hominy chops, distillers' grains, the 

new corn product 345 

CHAPTER XVI. 

CORN FODDER. 

Manner of planting; varieties; time of harvesting; method of harvesting; 
shocking of fodder corn; methods of feeding corn fodder; losses in corn fod- 
der; feeding value of corn fodder; the value of stalk fields; turning stock in the 
unhusked fields; production of corn fodder in Iowa. 366 

CHAPTER XVII. 
CORN SILAGE AND CORN SILAGE PRODUCTION. 

Historical, in Europe, in United States; principles of preservation; time to 
plant; manner of planting; thickness of planting; varieties to plant; time of 
harvesting; investigation of the growth of corn for silage; method of harvest- 
ing; size of silos; filling the silo; cost of silage; cost of filling silos in Iowa;, 
losses of silage in the silo; value of silage; composition and feeding value of 
corn silage 385 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
JUDGING CORN. 

Why judge corn; introduction of the corn score card; score cards used by the 
Farm Crops and Extension Departments, of the Iowa State College, the Iowa 
Corn Growers' Association; the use of a score card; practical hints in judging 
corn ; selecting a sample of corn for show 406 



CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

THE VARIETIES OF DENT CORN NOW PRINCIPALLY GROWN IN THE 

CORN BELT. 

HISTORY, BREED CHARACTERISTICS, CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS OF. — Learning, Reid's 

Yellow Dent, Iowa Silver Mine, Boone County White. 
HISTORY AND BREED CHARACTERISTICS OF. — Legal Tender, Riley's Favorite, Golden 
Eagle, White Superior, Shenandoah Yellow, Farmers' Reliance, Pride of the 
North, Silver King, Chase's White Dent, Wisconsin No. 7, McAuley White 
Dent, Golden Row, Mammoth Golden Yellow, Nebraska White Prize, Iowa 
Ideal, Willhoit, Cattle King, Kansas Sunflower, Minnesota No. 13, Hildreth 
Yellow Dent 424 

CHAPTER XX. 

CORN BREEDING. 
THE FARMER AS A CORN BREEDER. 

Securing the seed for planting a selection bed; selecting seed for selection 
bed; size and location of selection bed; planting and care of selection bed; 
causes of barren stalks; causes of suckers; selecting seed ears from selection 
bed ; selection bed, second year 447 

CHAPTER XXI. 

CORN BREEDING. 
FROM THE STANDPOINT OF REMAINING PERMANENTLY IN THE BUSI- 
NESS. 

THE CORN breeder's PLAN. — First year, trial crop; second year, mating individual 
ears in the breeding block; third year, increase bed; continuing individual 
ear test and mating in breeding blocks; pure bred and high grade seed; some 
points to be considered by the seed corn breeder 458 

CHAPTER XXII. 
CORN BREEDING. 

Mechanical Methods of Selecting Seed Corn for Improved Chemical Compo- 
sition. 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIOIRE. TITLE. PAHE. 

2 David Rankin, of Tarkio, Missouri, directing the cultivation of a 

thousand acre field 6 

3 A western cornfield full to overflowing 14 

6 Fibrous root system of corn 44 

7 Stalk showing brace roots at nodes above the ground 46 

8 Longitudinal section through the root 47 

9 Young root of pea 48 

Tranverse section of root of pea 48 

10 Section of corn stalk showing pith, fibro-vascular bundles, and epi- 

dermis 49 

11 Fibro-vascular bundle, cross section of 50 

13 Section of branch tassel showing pollen suspended on elongated fila- 

ments 54 

14 Spikelet from tassel cut to show its two flowers, the one on the right 

fully open, the other not yet mature 55 

15 (a) Ear in silk, entire tassel 56 

15(b) Young ear cut through middle lengthwise 57 

Single spikelet from ear, showing bracts, upper part of stigma... 57 

16 Ear in natural position on stalk 58 

18 Field which has been drowned out early in the spring 74 

19 Hog barn, with litter carrier depositing manure in rack, to keep 

stock from tramping it in the mud about the lot 92 

20 Manure spreader in operation on pasture which is to be planted to 

corn the next year 93 

21 Mowing alfalfa, one of the legumes which not only deposits nitrogen 

in the soil, but opens up the subsoil to considerable depth 95 

22 Corn which shows effect of previous leguminous crop 98 

23 The picking squad 104 

24 Good and bad stalks 105 

25 Bad method of storing seed corn 105 

26 Ears tied too closely together on string for best results 106 

27 Seed corn hung up by twine on wires 107 

28 A method of storing seed corn which admits the free circulation of 

air about the ear 107 

29 Seed ears stored upright 113 

32 The effect of moisture and freezing upon the vitality of corn 116 

33 The result of strong and weak seed 118 

35 Packing the sawdust in the germination box 125 

36 Marking off and numbering the squares 126 

37 Removing the kernels with a knife 128 

38 Transferring the kernels to the test box 130 

39 Folding over the edges of the upper and larger cloth 131 

40 Rolling back the top covering of sawdust preparatory to reading the 

test 132 

41 Ears laying out after the kernels have been transferred to the ger- 

mination box 133 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIGURE. TITLE. PAQ;: 

42 An extensive test on j^34 

43 Testing corn by the fireside in the farm home 135 

44 After reading the test 135 

45 A tester which has proved very efficient and economical 136 

4G The wrong way to place kernels in a germination box 137 

47 The right way to place kernels in a box 13S 

48 A strong test J3g 

49 A weak test ^39 

50 A bad test 239 

51 A patent tester which has the good quality of separating the kernels 

of each ear into little cups, which may be set out in front of the 

^^^ 140 

52 Standard seed corn tester 142 

53 Three types of kernels which when shelled together can not be ex- 

pected to be dropped accurately by the ordinary planter 142 

54 Hand-shake corn sorter 243 

55 A grain cleaner which has a corn grading attachment 143 

56 Heavy corn stalk rake 247 

57 Single row stalk cutter 248 

58 Full disk harrow 249 

60 Spading disk harrow 249 

CI Breaking plow 250 

62 Sulky plow 251 

63 Gang plow in operation 252 

64 Diagram showing the capillary tubes and texture of the soil early 

in the spring after the surface has dried out and no cultivation 
has been done 253 

65 Diagram showing the surface soil stirred slightly and a mulch es- 

tablished 254 

66 Diagram showing the effect of the mold board upon the capillary 

tubes in the soil 255 

67 Diagram showing the effect of the position of the capillary tubes 

after a field has been plowed to a depth of 4 to 6 inches 156 

68 Diagram showing what effect discing, harrowing and rolling has 

upon the plowed field 25G 

Four section. 100 tooth, 20 foot smoothing harrow 157 

Curved knife harrow 257 

Disc plow 2.5S 

General purpose plow 259 

Steel jointer 260 

Types of rolling coulters 260 

Rolling coulter with shoe in front which prevents excessive trash 

from lodging above the coulter without being cut 101 

The rotary disc attached to plow ir,2 

Smooth steel roller 262 

Flanker 263 

Combined pulverizer and packer 164 

Field not ready for planting ICG 

Corn planter 268 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FTGURE. TITLK. PA(iR. 

82 Round-hole-drill-drop planter plate 169 

83 Edge-drop planter plate 172 

84 Corn planter, showing disc furrow opener attachments 173 

86 Roller-fork for corn planter 176 

87 Single row combined lister and drill 177 

88 Single row drill 178 

89 Tongueless four-shovel cultivator 188 

90 Disc cultivator 190 

91 Weeder 191 

92 Surface cultivator 193 

93 Two row riding cultivator 195 

94 Cultivating checked corn the first time 196 

95 "Laying-by" 198 

97 Single row disc cultivator with sled and knives for listed corn 199 

98 T\^o-row listed corn cultivator 200 

99 Common method of husking corn from the field 203 

100 Corn picker and husker 204 

101 Corn picker at work 205 

103 Horizontal and slanting boards on corn crib 206 

104 Portable grain elevator 208 

105 Corn affected by smut 230 

106 Plant aphids as seen in the tassel of corn 234 

107 Beetle of the southern corn root worm at work early in the spring. . 235 

108 Corn plant showing effects of attacks by the bill bug 236 

109 Each bundle represents four average hills of corn from ground in 

corn for the first, second, third and fourth years 249 

110 Pour hiUs representing ground in corn for the first year 251 

111 Four hills representing ground in corn for the second year 252 

112 Four hills representing ground in corn for the third year 253 

113 Four hills representing ground in corn for the fourth year 254 

114 Field representing ground in corn for the first year 256 

115 Field representing ground in corn for the second year 256 

116 Field representing ground in corn for the third year 257 

117 Field representing ground in corn for the fourth year 257 

119 Map showing the distribution of elevators in Iowa in 1907 264 

120 Small country elevator 267 

121 Car before it has been properly lined for grain 269 

122 Car after it has been properly lined for grain 271 

123 Car door covered with cheese cloth to prevent leaking 273 

124 (a) Stopping leakage on side of grain car 276 

124 Design of right elevation of small country elevator 277 

125 Modern terminal elevator 294 

126 Warehouse receipt 297 

127 Chicago Board of Trade Building 315 

128 Exchange Hall of Chicago Board of Trade .' 326 

129 Commercial products of corn 337 

130 Physical parts of the corn kernel -. 346 

131-1 Cross section of corn kernel ■ 349 

131-2 Corn kernel divided into crown, middle, tip 350 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 

FIGURE. TITLE. PAGE 

132 Percentage composition of corn 355 

133 Cattle in an Iowa feed lot 360 

134 Feed carrier in the alley of a cow barn 363 

135 Corn binder at work 371 

136 Corn harvester and shocker 372 

137 Corn in the shock 374 

138 Husker and cutter 375 

140 Filling silo at Iowa Experiment Station 398 

141 Short course students judging corn at the Iowa State College 407 

142 Space at cob and shrunken tips 409 

144 Types of kernels 412 

145 Sample lacking uniformity in length of ears 420 

146 Sample showing fair uniformity in length of ears, but the kernels 

are of different types 421 

147 Ears of same length and kernels similar in type 422 

148 Section of corn exhibit at the Iowa Corn Growers' Association, Jan- 

uary, 1907 422 

149 Leaming 424 

150 Kernels of different varieties 425 

151 Reid's Yellow Dent 

Champion ten ears of Iowa. 
Shown .January, 1907. 

Grown by Bennett Bros 427 

152 Two types of tips in ears of Reid's Yellow Dent 428 

156(d) Reid's Yellow Dent 430 

153 Silver Mine 431 

156(c) Boone County White 433 

154 Sectional view of an ear of Legal Tender 435 

155 Golden Eagle 437 

156 Pride of the North 439 

156(b) Chase's White Dent 440 

156 (a) Iowa Ideal 443 

157 Hildreth Corn grown in Kansas 445 

161 Corn plant alTected by smut in various places 451 

159 Ear too high on stalk 455 

160 Stalks showing ears at proper height 456 

162 Planting individual ears by hand 459 

163 Record of corn breeding operations 461 

164 Effect of inbreeding 462 

165 Detasseling corn 463 

166 "Stalks a-foolin' 'round all summer, doin' nothin,." 464 

167 Hand pollinated ear 465 

168 Indicative of the growth of the seed corn business in Iowa 468 

169 Corn crated ready for shipment 468 

170 Hand picking shelled seed corn 469 

171 Butting and tipping by machinery 470 

172 Interior view of large seed corn warehouse 471 

320 Diagram showing the uses to which feed stuffs are put in the ani- 
mal body 352 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 
FIGURK. TITLE. PAGE. 

321 Corn tray 419 

S23 Black headed grass maggott 236 

324 Clay-backed cut worm, larva 238 

325 Clay-backed cut worm, adult 239 

327 Common sod web worm, larva 240 

328 Common sod web worm, larva 240 

329 Common sod web worm, adult 241 

32G Stalk-borer 247 

330 Inspectors leaving for freight yards 281 

331 Breaking the seal 282 

332 Inspector's tag is now put on the car 283 

333 The extra boards are being removed 284 

334 The car of grain is inspected 285 

335 A sample of grain is collected 286 

336 After the car of grain has been inspected it is again sealed 287 

337 Reinspecting grain at the grain inspector's office 288 

SPECIAL SERIES IX REG.\R!) TO HANGING THE SEED CORN. 

Laying in the first ear lOS 

Laying in the second ear 109 

Laying in the last ear 110 

Ready for hanging Ill 

Taking out the ears 112 

DIAGRAMS-MAPS-CHARTS. 

Diagram showing the rank of each state in production of corn from 

1850 to 1890 18 

Map of United States showing the production of each state for a 

series of years Between 17 and IS 

Map of Iowa showing comparative areas devoted to different crops 

for 1905 25 

Charts 1-2-3-4-5 showing relation of temperature and precipitation 
to yield of corn in Iowa for the period 1890 to 1907 for the months 

of May, June. July, August and all four combined 84-85-86-87-88 

Table showing length of growing season in Iowa Between 88-89 

Map of soil areas of Iowa 91 

Diagram of a crop rotation 100 

Chart showing the Farmers' Variety Test of 1537 samples tested on 
the county poor farms of Iowa 123 

COLORED INSERTS OF INSECTS. 

Pl^te. Between Page Page 

I. The Seed Corn Maggot and Corn Flea Beetle 234 235 

II. Wire Worm 236 237 

III. White Grub 238 239 

IV. Corn Bill Bugs 240 241 

V. Corn Root Louse 242 243 

VI. Chinch-Bug 244 245 

VII. Army Worm, with pupa, moth and egg 246 247 

VIII. Northern Corn Root Worm 248 249 

IX. Corn (Ear) Worm 256 257 

X. Angoumois Grain Moth 258 259 

XI. Grain Weevils 260 261 



CHAPTER I 



HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT 



The word "Corn" has been in use from earhest times. At first it 
signified a grain as we use the term today when speaking of a single 
kernel, seed or particle. Later the name was applied to all cereal crops Derivation 
in general, and in Europe this custom still prevails. It was not until word "Com" 
during the early colonization of America that the name "Corn" was 
legally accepted in its present application. In one of the counties of 
Pennsylvania a man had been indicted for stealing so many bushels of 
corn, and in course of the conflict his counsel took exception to the 
word as it was used, on the ground that this was not the perfect 
description of Indian corn. The exception, however, was overruled 
by court, who thus decided that corn was the established name for 
Indian corn. The old name Maize is still used to some extent. It is 
a later construction from ma-hiz, a Haytian word. We also find the 
term "Indian Corn" used considerably even in the present day. 

Some authorities claim that corn is of Eastern origin, and to sub- 
stantiate this statement they have attempted to show that the cereal 
was menioned in ancient Chinese literature before Columbus dis- J^ *^°"' 
covered America. Some of our most eminent botanists, however, such l^f^^l^ 
as Humboldt and Sturtevant, have very successfully refuted this argu- 
ment, and they have been able to show conclusively that America is 
the original home of corn. Traditions have it that as early as the year 
I002 A. D. Karlsefn, and again in 1006, Thorfin, both Norsemen, each 
saw and brought in their ships ears of corn from what is now Massa- 
chusetts. But stronger evidence is presented in the ears of corn which 
have been found with mummies of Mexico and Peru. We know, too, 
that Columbus discovered corn when he first landed on American soil. 

As to the distribution of corn in Europe, it is claimed by good 
authority that Columbus took it back to Spain with him, on the return 
from his great voyage. From Spain it was taken into France and Italy, Spread 
although we know that its spread must have been very slow, for it was i° Europe 
nearly a hundred years after the discovery of America before we find 
any mention made of corn in France. From Italy corn was taken into 



2 CORN 

Switzerland and Hungary, and from Hungary to Austria and eastern 
Europe. From Switzerland it was taken into the valley of the Rhine, 
and from Portugal corn was introduced into Asia. 

Indian corn entered into the mythological and religious ceremonies 
of the Indians, both of South and North America, long before they 
^°™ bTt"hI were disturbed by civilization. When the white man came to live 
^^'"^ among them they told him how to select the best ears for seed and 
how and when to plant it. To be sure, their methods were very crude. 
Since the land was covered by a dense forest it was necessary first 
that this should be cleared away. This the Indians did by burning a 
ring around the base of the trunk of the tree and by scraping away the 
charred bits until the tree could be blown over. Often, however, they 
would first girdle the tree with a rough stone axe and allow it to die 
before burning was attempted. When spring came, the squaw, who 
did the most of this work, proceeded to plant the corn. With a sharp 
stick she made holes in the ground about four feet apart, and after 
putting a fish or several crawfish into each hole she planted the seed on 
top of this and covered it over with soil. The fish were used as 
fertilizer. In the fall the corn was picked and stored away in pits dug 
in the ground. Such then, we are led to believe, were the methods 
adopted by our forefathers when they began farming on our native 
soil. 

The first successful attempt of the English to cultivate corn in 
North America was in 1608, along the James river in Virginia. A year 
Bettiers or two later it is said that as much as thirty acres of corn were culti- 
cuitivated vated there. It is recorded that as early as 1650 corn to the extent of 
600 bushels was exported from Savannah, and by 1770 the amount 
exported from this same place had reached 13,598 bushels. However, 
during the period intervening numerous exportations are recorded 
ranging from 10,000 to 250,000 bushels, so we know that even at this 
early date more corn was raised than was needed for home consump- 
tion. In 1770 the total amount exported from the colonies was 
578,349 bushels, and in 1800, 2,032,435 bushels were exported. By this 
we see that the development during this period was very rapid, at 
least considering the fact that agricultural implements were little 
known, and that there were no transportation facilities to speak of. 
The main increase in production was the result of increased acreage. 

As to the origin of the corn plant itself, some botanists have en- 
deavored to show that Teosinte, a rank-growing forage plant, is its 
progenitor. Teosinte is a native Mexican plant and is called by 
Watson "Zea canina." Recently Montgomery has expressed a similar 



com 



Teosinte 



HISTORY OF THE CORN PLANT. 3 

theory. He states that corn and Teosinte may have had a common 
origin, and he intimates that in the process of evolution it is probable 
that the pistillate spikes in Teosinte were developed from the lateral 
branches of a tassel-like structure, while corn was developed from the 
central spike. Further, he suggests that the progenitor of these plants 
was a large, much branched grass, each branch being terminated by a 
tassel-like structure. 

Bailey also expresses an opinion that Zea canina may not be a dis- 
tinct species from our common corn. He mentions the tendency of 
some varieties of sweet corn to occasionally produce multiple rudimen- 
tary ears, and of the canina to lose them under cultivation, as a point 
in favor of the theory of the relation. The tendency of cultivation in 
all plants is to develop some parts and organs rather than all parts 
and all organs. The tendency to sucker, to produce tassels on the ends 
of the ears, the profuse drooping tassels of the flint corn and kindred 
varieties, or pointed kernels, and the occurrence of these peculiarities 
in the aboriginal corn in the Aztec region tends to emphasize the 
relation that exists between the varieties. 

From the natural characteristics of the corn plant we may safely 
conclude that the distribution of the species was necessarily of an 
artificial nature, for the seed has no wing or appendage which would 
permit it to be blown about by the wind. Furthermore, the perishable 
nature of the seed was directly opposed to Nature's methods of scat- 
. tering the species. It seems safe to assume that the species that exist 
today have either been developed by man and perpetuated by this 
same agency, or that man came upon the plant soon after its useful 
development and at once began to cultivate it. There are at present 
eight species of the genus Zeas. 

In 1814 there were only five varieties of corn (Zea Mays) known, 
i. e.. Big Yellow, Big White, Little Yellow, Little White and Gourd- 
seed. Both the large and small varieties were flinty, corresponding to 
the old type of flint corn. The gourd-seed corn represents perhaps 
the first step in the development of the dent corn of today. It was 
characterized by a deep, pointed, soft kernel of either white or yellow 
color. By 1840 nearly forty varieties were known. These were based 
primaril}^ upon color, size of ear, and density of kernel. At least one 
of our present standard breeds had its origin previous to that time and 
others soon followed. 



CHAPITER II 

ACREAGE, DISTRIBUTION, PRODUCTION 
AND VALUATION 

ACREAGE DEVOTED TO CORN GROWING 

The total area of land devoted to corn growing in the United States 
in 1907 amounted to 99,931,000 acres. If combined into a single field 
it would cover the entire land surface of the three states, Iowa, Illinois, 
and Ohio. Since 1870 nearly 12 per cent of all land classed as farm 
land and over 20 per cent of all improved farm land has been 
planted with corn each year. This would be equivalent to an 80-acre 
field in every section of farm land, or a 130-acre field in every section 
of improved farm land. 

The increase in the acreage of corn has been for the past 40 years 
uniformly parallel to the increase in the area of farm land. The fol- 
lowing chart illustrates this increase from the year 1866 to 1908: 

CHART NO. I. 

Acreage of corn in the United States from 1866-1907. 

IMillions of Acres. 

Percent 
20 40 60 80 100 of In- 
, crease 

1900 ^mtmm^^mmm^^mmmm^i^i^i^mmtmm 7 4 % 



m^i^mm I 7.2% 



1890 1900 
1880 1890 
1870-1880 
1866-1870 



61. ^fo 

28.9% 



NOTK.— The acreage designated in the above chart represents the average 
acreage for the periods indicated in the margin to tlie left. 

From the foregoing it is seen that the period of greatest increase 
was from 1880 to 1890, being 61.2 per cent, and the period of slightest 
variation was from 1890 to 1900, being only 7.2 per cent. Climatic 
conditions and the state of the general market have been perhaps the 
most important factors in this increase. 



ACREAGE. 5 

For the past 40 years the acreage devoted to corn growing has been 
slightly greater than that of all other cereals combined. In fact, 52 
per cent of the entire area devoted to cereal crops, including corn 
itself, has been devoted to this crop. So constant has been this pro- 
portion that it has not varied i per cent either way during the entire 
period mentioned above. 

The following chart will show the relative acreage of the cereal 
crops of the United States in 1906: 

CHART NO. 2. 
Comparative acreage of all cereals in the United States for 1906. 

Millions of Acres. 



10 • ^>0 .30 40 



jO «() 70 HO 90 100 f'"!!'""* 

of Total 



Corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Barley 

Kye 

Buekwheat 

Flax 

Rice 






•■751 6% 



95 2% 

16. 67c 

3 4% 

1.3% 

1 0% 

.5% 

.4% 



In considering briefly the acreage devoted to corn growing in each 
ot the ten states which have been leading in the production of this 
great cereal during the past few years, note the following table: 

TABLE I. 

ACREAGE OF CORN AS COMPARED WITH TOTAL ACREAGE OF ALL 

FARM LAND IN EACH OF THE TEN STATES LEADING 

IN ITS PRODUCTION IN 1900. 



State 



Acres of Farm Land 



Acre.s in Corn 



Per cent 



Illinois 


32.794.728 
34.574.337 
33,997,873 
29,911,779 
21,619,623 
125,807,017 
41,662,970 
24,501,985 
15,719,258 
21,979,422 


7,139,898 
8,048,946 
6,453,943 
8,093,464 
4,031,600 
4,553,495 
8,624,770 
2,888,924 
544,000 
2,664.124 


21.8 


Iowa 


23.3 


Missouri 


18.9 


Nebraska 


27.1 


Indiana 


19.1 


Texas 


3.6 


Kansas 


20.7 


Ohio 


11.8 


Oklahoma 

Kentucky 


3.5 
12.1 



Total 

Taken from Census Report of 1900. 



53,043,164 



CORN. 




(^^ O 






H 

CM 
O 

o a 
a 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 7 

These ten states represent nearly 56 per cent of the total acreage 
of corn grown in the United States. It is seen that Kansas led in 
1900, with Nebraska second. In Nebraska we find the highest percent 
of all farm land devoted to the production of corn. While no doubt 
most of these states have reached their maximum acreage limit, the 
rapid strides made by Oklahoma in the past, and the low percentage of 
available land at present utilized in corn growing, bespeak for this 
state a more prominent place in the future. However, this country has 
now reached a point where increased acreage will play a minor role 
in the increased production of this great cereal in the future. 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 

The world's corn crop in 1906 amounted to 3,886,207,000 bushels. 
In one year there was produced enough corn to fill a double crib 16 
feet wide to a uniform depth of eight feet for a length of 7,200 miles. 
This crib would extend from New York City to San Francisco, or if 
all of this corn were to be piled on a square mile of ground the pile 
would be 175 feet high. 

There were concerned in this production five continents, including 
22 different nations. A careful study of the following table will show 
the amount of corn produced by each country from 1899 to 1908; also 
which countries have been the heaviest producers. 



?##wMi 


Wf'l 


iSii 


^m^^^Wl 


Sim 


HBSSi" 


• V *Jw^iSiS^^ Baaa 




BtMtf§!H'j5fe^$Hy 





CORN. 

PRODUCTION OF CORN BY COUNTRIES, 1899-1908. 
TABLE NO. 2. 



Country | 

United States 

Canada (Ontario) 

Mexico 

Total North America 

Argentine 

Chile 

Uruguay 

Total South America 

Austria-Hungary — Austria 

Hungary proper 

Croatia Slavonia 

Bosnia Herzegovina 

Total Austria-Hungary 

Bulgaria 

France 

Italy 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Total Europe 

Algeria 

Cape of Good Hope 

Egypt 

Natal 

Sudan 

Total Africa 

Australia 

New Zealand 

Total Australasia 

Grand Total 



1899 



1900 



1901 



1902 



2,078,144,000|2,105, 103,000 
22,35G,000| 27,947,000 
93,438,000 92,204,000 

2,193,938,000 2,225,254,000 



66,185,000 
9,000,000 
6,000,000 

81,185,000 

14,583,000 

115,981,000 

14,068,000 

144,632,000 

20,462,000 
25,548,000 
88,536,000 
16,000,000 
27,721,000 
30,912,000 
15,000,000 
24,667,000 
394,090,000 

349,000 

2,858,000 

30,000,000 



1,522,520,0001 2,523,648,000 
25,621,000| 21,159,000 
93,459,0001 78,099,000 

1,641,600,00012,622,906,000 



9,780,000 
2,711,200,000 



56,612,000 
1,500,000 
3,035,000 

60,147,000 

15,446,000 

127,656,000 

18,691,000 

161,793,000 

18,000,000 
22,232,000 
87,969,000 
16,000,000 
85,047,000 
34,256,000 
18,472,000 
26,016,000 
469,785,000 

350,000 

2,000,000 

25,000,000 



98,842,0001 

1,500,0001 

5,57G,000| 

105,918,0001 



84,018,000 
866,00 
5,060,00' 
89,944,00 



17,535,0001 13,462,000 

127,389,000[ 104,546,000 

20,469,0001 15,255,000 

165,393,0001 133,203,000 



10,025,000 
2,792,561,000 



25,000,000 
26,393,000 

100,455.000 
15,000,000 

110,945,000 
08,400,000 
18,849,000 
25,759,000 

502,194,000 

529,000 

2,000,000 

30,000,000 



10,168,000 
2,352,309,000 



i 



18,109,00 
24,928,00 
71,028,000 
16,000,000 
68,447,000 
48,647,000 
18,396,00 
25,272,00 
424,090,00 



556,00( 

2,000,000 

30,000,000 



7,847,00 
3,177,343,00 






Europe 
second 



At a glance it is seen that North America and particularly the 
United States has been far in the lead. Europe follows in second 
place, but there is a very wide margin between the two continents. 

The highest total world's production occurred in 1906, and the 
lowest during the period recorded, in 1901. The report for 1907 is not 
as yet completed, but a marked decrease is noted in practically every 
country. The season was extremely unfavorable throughout the corn 
belt. 

Basing our conclusions on the crop of 1906 we find that 16 coun- 
tries show an increase in production during the past nine years, two 
countries show neither an increase nor a decrease, and seven show an 
actual decrease. 



I 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 

PRODUCTION OF CORN BY COUNTRIES. 1899-1908. 
TABLE NO. 2. (con.) 



Country 



1903 



United States 

Canada (Ontario) . . . 

Mexico 

Total North America 



Argentine . . 

Chile 

Uruguay . . . 
Total South 



America. 



Austria-Hungary, 

Austria 

Hungary proper 

Croatia Slavonia 

Bosnia Herzegovina . . . 
Total Austria-Hungary. 



Bulgaria .... 

France 

Italy 

Portugal . . . . 
Roumania . . . 

Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Total Europe 



Algeria 

Cape of Good Hope. 

Egypt 

Natal 

Sudan 

Total Africa 



2,244,177,000 
30,211,000 
90,000.000 

2,364.388,000 

148,422,000 
1.118.000 
5,289.000 

154,829,000 



16.056,000 

135,751,000 

23,918,000 

175,725,000 

22.836.000 
25,360.000 
88,990.000 
14,000,000 
80.272.000 
50,732,000 
19.479,000 
18,759.000 
496.153.000 

435.000 

3.502.000 

30.000.000 



33.937.000 



Australia 

New Zealand . . . . 
Total Australasia 



1904 



1905 



1906 



1907 



2,407.481,000i 2,707,994,0001 2,927,410,000 
20,880.000| 21.582.000 24.74a.000 
90.000.00., 89.000.000 70,000,000 

2,578,361,000 2,818,576,000 3,022,161,000 

175.189.0001 140.708,0001 194,912,000 

1,477,0001 1,000.000' 840,000 

3,035,0001 4,417,000i 3,226,000 

179,701,000l 140,125,0001 



12,529,0001 
59,400,0001 
11,434,000 

83.363.000 

18.000.000j 
23.000.000 
87.000.000| 
15,000,0001 
19.598,000 1 
26,032,0001 
9,498,000| 
21,300.000] 
302,791,0001 

410.0001 

3.000.0001 

30,000,0001 



33,410,0001 



5.615.0001 10,519.000 



17,293,000 

94.042.000 

18,385.000 

9.584,000 

139,304,000 

19,649,000 
24.032,000 
97,859.000 
16,000,000 
59,275,000 
33,551,000 
21.431,000 
31,900,000 
442,999.000 

400.000 

3.000,000 

30.000,000 

4.822,000 

232.000 

38.454.000 

8,374.000 

506.000 

8.884.000 



Grand Total 13,054,922,00013, 104.782,00013.455,038,000 



18,177,000 
162,923.000 

25,600,000 

8,936.000 

215.636,000 

20.000.000 
14.581,000 
93.007.000 
16.000.000 

130.546,000 
59,320,000 
27.786.000 
30.000.000 

618.057,000 

544,000 

3,000,000 

30.000,000 

4,000,000 

300,000 

37.844,000 

8,608,000 

653,000 

9,261,000 

3,886.207.000 



2,592,320,000 
22,949,000 
85,714,000 

2,700,983,000 

89,193,000 
5,359.000 



16.914,000 
155,617,000 

27,600.000 

7,748,000 

207,879,000 

12,000,000 

59,429.000 

57.576.000 
41.903.000 
17.691.000 
25.372,000 



34,286,000 



10.505,000 

419.000 

10.924.000 



The only countries which have made any phenomenal progress are 
Roumania and Argentine Republic. The former has multiplied its 
production of 1899 nearly five times, and the latter has trebled its pro- 
duction. The United States shows an increase of nearly 50 per cent. 

While it is not likely that Roumania will become a dangerous 
competitor to our own country, owing to limited area, yet with 
Argentine it is a different matter. In 1899 Argentine's production 
only amounted to 3.1 per cent that of the United States, while in 1906 
it reached 6.6 per cent. The United States has practically reached its 
acreage limit, while Argentine's agriculture is still in its infanc}'. 
With an almost unlimited area, a remarkably adaptable climate and 



Roumania 



Argentme 



10 



CORN. 



\irt:;in soil fertility, Argentine's hope of at least approaching the 
cereal production of our country is by no means a vain one. 

A more comprehensive view of the relative production and distribu- 
tion of corn may be found by studying the following tables : 



PERCENTAGE OF WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF CORN BY CONTINENTS 

FROM 1899-1908. 







TABLE 


3. 














Continent 


1899 1900 1901 1903 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 Av. 


North America 

Europe 

South America 


80.0 

14.5 

2.9 

1.2 

.3 

.... 


79.7 

16.7 

2.1 

.9 

.3 


G7.7 

23.8 

4.5 

1.3 

.4 


82.5 

13.3 

2.8 

1.0 

.2 


77.4 

16.2 

5.0 

1.1 

.1 


83.0 

9.7 

5.7 

1.0 

.3 


S1.5 

12.8 

4.2 

1.1 

.2 

.01 


77.8 

15.9 

5.1 

.9 

.2 


82.4 

13.1 

2.9 

1.0 

.3 


79.2 

15.1 

3.9 


Africa 


1.0 


Australia 


2.5 


New Zealand 





Figures taken from special report from U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



RANK, PERCENTAGE OF WORLD'S PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF 

CORN BY COUNTRIES, 1S99-190S. 

TABLE NO. 4. 



Country 



United States . . . 
Austria Hungary 

Argentine 

Mexico 

Italy 

Roumania 

Russia 

Egypt 

Spain 

Ontario 

Servia 

Bulgaria 

Uruguay 

Australia 

New Zealand . . . 

Chili 

France 

Portugal 

Algeria 

Cape Colony .... 

Natal 

Sudan 



R'k 



1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

G 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

IG 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 



J 907 

73.3 
C.3 
2.7 
2.6 
1.8 
1.8 
1.6 
1.0 



I R'k I 



** 
** 
** 
** 
** 
** 



.7 I 
.5 I 
.3 I 
.2 I 
.3 I 



1 

2 

3 

6 

5 

4 

7 

10 

8 

11 

9 

12 

17 

15 

20 

19 

14 

13 

21 

18 

10 

22 



1906 


R'k 


1905 


R'k 


75.3 


1 


78.3 


1 


5.5 


3 


3.G 


5 


5.0 


2 


4.0 


2 


1.9 


5 


2.5 


3 


2.4 


4 


2.8 


4 


3.5 


6 


1.7 


11 


1.8 


7 


.9 


7 


.7 


9 


.8 


6 


.8 


8 


.9 


10 


.6 


10 


.6 


9 


.7 


12 


.6 


14 


.5 


13 


.5 


12 


.1 


IG 


.1 


16 


.3 


15 


.2 


15 


* 


20 


* 


20 


* 


19 


* 


17 


.3 


11 


.6 


8 


.4 


14 


.4 


13 


* 


21 


* 


18 


.1 


18 


.1 


19 


.1 


17 


.1 


21 


* 


22 


* 


22 



J 904 

79.4 

2.6 

5.6 

2.8 

2.8 

.6 

.9 

.9 

.6 

.6 

.3 

.5 

.1 

.3 



♦Less than one-tenth per cent. 
♦♦Countries not reported in 1907. 



PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 



11 



RANK, PERCENTAGE OF WORLDS PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF 

CORN BY COUNTRIES. 1899-1908. 

TABLE NO. 4. (con.) 



Country 



R'k 


1903 1 R'k 


190^ 


R'k 


1901 


R'k 


1 1900 


R'k 


1 


73.4 


1 


79.4 


1 


G4.7 


1 


75.3 


1 


2 


5.8 


2 


4.0 


2 


G.9 


2 


5.7 


2 


3 


4.8 


3 


2.6 


5 


4.2 


G 


1.9 


5 


4 


2.9 


4 


2.4 


G 


3.9 


4 


3.3 


3 


5 


2.9 


5 


2.2 


4 


4.2 


5 


3.1 


4 


G 


2.G 


G 


2.1 


3 


4.9 


3 


3.4 


8 


7 


l.G 


7 


1.5 


7 


3.0 


7 


1.2 


G 


8 


.9 


8 


.9 


8 


1.2 


10 


.8 


7 


12 


.G 


10 


.7 


11 


1.0 


9 


.9 


10 


9 


.9 


11 


.G 


10 


1.0 


8 


1.0 


11 


13 


.G 


14 


.5 


13 


.8 


13 


.G 


13 


11 


.7 


13 


.5 


12 


1.0 


12 


.G 


12 


IC 


.1 


IG 


.1 


IG 


.2 


IG 


.1 


17 


17 


.1 


15 


.2 


15 


.4 


15 


.3 


14 


20 


* 


18 


* 


20 


* 


20 


* 


20 


15 


.3 


20 


* 


18 


.1 


18 


.1 


16 


10 


.8 


9 


.7 


9 


1.1 


11 


.7 


9 


14 


.4 


12 


.5 


14 


.G 


14 


.5 


15 


19 


* 


19 


* 


17 


.1 


19 


* 


19 


18 


.1 


17 


.1 


19 


* 


17 


.1 


18 


21 


• 


21 


* 


21 


* 


21 


* 


21 


22 


« 


22 


• 


22 


* 


22 


* 


22 



1899 



United States . . . 
Austria Hungary 

Argentine 

Mexico 

Italy 

Roumania 

Russia 

Egypt 

Spain 

Ontario 

Servia 

Bulgaria 

Uruguay 

Australia 

New Zealand . . . . 

Chili 

France 

Portugal 

Algeria 

Cape Colony .... 

Natal 

Sudan 



76.6 

5.2 

2.4 

3.4 

3.2 

1.0 

1.2 

1.1 

.9 

.8 

.5 

.7 

.2 

.3 

.3 
.9 
.5 



♦Less than one-tenth per cent. 



In table No. 3, showing relative production by continents, it is seen 
that North America produces four times as much corn as all other 
continents combined. The second table, No. 4, goes still further and 
shows that the United States alone annually produces nearly four- 
fifths of the entire world's crop. Foremost of the remaining countries 
stand Austria Hungary, Argentine Republic, Mexico, Italy, and 
Roumania, but the production of these five countries together is only 
about one-sixth of the production of the United States. 



12 



CORN. 



PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES 

It has been stated previously that the United States produce annu- 
ally four-fifths of the world's corn crop. In 1906, which was the year 
of our greatest production, this amounted to 2,927,416,000 bushels. 

The production of this important cereal has from the earliest 
times kept pace with the wide spread of civilization and agriculture. 
The progress made during the past half century is best illustrated by 
the following chart: 



CHART NO. 3. 
Increase in the Production of Corn in the United States from 

1 866- 1 907. 
Millions of Bushels. 



1907 
1900-1907 
1890-1900 
1880-1890 
1870-1880 
1866-1870 



Percent 
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 of In- 

crease 



8.6% 
30.0% 

7.7% 
43.8% 
38.6% 



Note — The percentage of increase is figured on the average production desig- 
nated on the chart for the periods indicated in the left margin. 

The period of greatest increase was from 1880 to 1890, and the fol- 
lowing decade shows the least increase of any period recorded. 



PRODUCTION IN UNITED STATES. 



13 



A more thorough knowledge of the progress made during the 
[)ast half century may be gained from the following table: 

PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 18GC-1907. 

TABLE NO. 5. 



Yt-ar 





Yield Ruslie 


Is 


Value 




Acreage 








PerBu. 




Totiil 


Per Acre 


Total 


Cents 


34,30G.538 


807.940.295 


25.3 


$411,450,830 


47.4 


32,520,249 


708.320,000 


23.6 


437.709.703 


57.0 


24,887.240 


900.527,000 


20.0 


424,050.049 


40.8 


37,103,245 


874,320,000 


23.0 


522.550.509 


59.8 


38.G4G.977 


1,094.255.000 


28.3 


540.520.450 


49.4 


34,091,137 


991.898.000 


29.1 


430.355.910 


43.4 


35,52G.S3G 


1.092.719,000 


30.8 


385.730,210 


35.3 


39,197.148 


932,274,000 


23.8 


411,901,151 


44.2 


41.030,918 


850,148.500 


20.7 


490,271,255 


58.4 


44.841,371 


1,321,009,000 


29.5 


484.074,804 


30.7 


49,033,304 


1,283.827.500 


20.2 


436,108,521 


34.0 


50,309,113 


1,342.558,000 


26.7 


407,635,230 


34.8 


51,585,000 


1,388,218.750 


26.9 


440,280.517 


31.7 


53,085,450 


1.547,901.790 


29.2 


580.486.217 


37.5 


02,317,842 


1,717,434,543 


27.6 


079,714,499 


39.0 


04,202,025 


1.194.910.000 


18.6 


759,482,170 


63.6 


05,059.545 


1.017.025.100 


24.6 


783,807,175 


48.5 


08,301,889 


1.551,000,895 


22.7 


058,051,485 


42.4 


09,083,780 


1,795.528,432 


25.8 


040,735,859 


35.7 


73,130,150 


1,930.170,000 


26.5 


635,674,630 


32.8 


75,094,208 


1.005.441,000 


22.0 


010.311.000 


36.0 


72.392.720 


1.450.101.000 


20.1 


040.100.770 


44.4 


75,072,703 


1.987,790.000 


26.3 


077.501,580 


34.1 


78,319,051 


2.112.892.000 


27.0 


597.918.829 


28.3 


71,970,703 


1.489,970,000 


20.7 


754.433.451 


50.0 


70,204,515 


2.000.154,000 


27.0 


830,439.228 


40.0 


70.020,058 


1.028.404.000 


23.1 


042,140.030 


39.4 


72,030,405 


1.019,490.131 


22.5 


591,025,027 


30.5 


02,582,209 


1.212,770,052 


19.4 


554.719,102 


45.7 


82,075,830 


2,151,138.580 


26.2 


544,985.534 


25.3 


81,027.150 


2.283.875.105 


28.2 


491,000.907 


21.5 


80,095,051 


1.902.907.933 


23.8 


501.072.952 


20.3 


77,721,781 


1.924.184,000 


24.8 


552.023.428 


28.7 


82.108,587 


2,078.143.933 


25.3 


029,210,110 


30.3 


83,320.872 


2.105,102,516 


25.3 


751,220,034 


35.7 


91,349.928 


1.522,519.891 


16.7 


921,535,708 


60.5 


94.043,013 


2,523,048.312 


26.8 


1.017,013,349 


40.3 


88.091.993 


2.244.170,925 


25.5 


952,808,801 


42.5 


92,231,581 


2,407.480,934 


20.8 


1,087,401,440 


44.1 


94.011,309 


2,707,993.540 


28.8 


1.110,090,738 


41.2 


90,737,581 


2.927.410.091 


30.3 


1,100,020,479 


39.9 


99,931,000 


2.592,320,000 


25.9 


1,330,901.000 


51.0 



1800 
1807 
1SC8 
1809 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1870 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 
1890 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 
1905 
1900 
1907 



This shows the annual increase in acreage and production, the 
average yield per acre, total value of corn crop and price per bushel. 
A little study will show the relation that exists between acreage and 
production, and the relation between average yield per acre and price 
per bushel. 



14 



CORN. 



It has been stated by some authorities that the corn grown per 
capita has been rapidly decreasing, but the census report, together 
with the annual report from the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, reveals facts to the contrary. Note the following table: 



TABLE NO. 6. 



Year 


Population 


Total Production in Corn pei 
United States (Bushels) Capita (Bus.) 


1850 


23,191,876 
31,443,321 
38.558,471 
50,155,783 
62,622,190 
75.997.873 


592,071,104 

838,792,742 

760,944,549 

1,754,591,676 

2,122,327,547 

2,666,440,279 


25.5 


1800 


26.6 


1870 

1880 

1890 

1900 


19.7 
34.9 
33.8 
35.0 



By referring to table No. 5 we find that the average yield per acre 
has remained practically constant since the early history of our coun- 
try. Indeed, back as early as 1790 an average yield of 30 bushels 
was recorded. It was possible to raise 100 per acre before 1830, and 
old Agricultural Society Reports show that such yields were about as 
common then as they are today. 




(Courtesy Denning Fence Company) 

Fig. 3. 
A Western Corn Field Full to Overflowing. 



PRODUCTION IN UNITED STATES. 



15 



The highest yield per acre ever recorded was produced by Z. J. 
Drake, of Marlboro county, South Carolina, in 1889. On a single 
acre he grew 255 bushels of corn, shelled. However, much fertilizer, 
previous care, and subsequent cultivation, were found to be necessary. 
Nevertheless, Mr. Drake has shown what can be done, and he has 
given to every corn grower a goal to strive for. 

The lowest average yield occurred in 1901. It amounted to 16.1 
bushels. It will be remembered that that year was extremely unfavor- 
able to corn growing from nearly every standpoint. The spring was 
cold and damp and the summer exceedingly warm with little rainfall. 

The highest average yield recorded was produced in 1872. In 
that year 30.8 bushels of corn were produced for every acre of ground 
planted. The climatological report shows only an average season. 
The spring was backward, but July showers and sunshine gave the 
needed encouragement. 

The following chart shows the average yield from 1866 to 1907 : 



Highest 
yield 
ever 
recorded 



Lowest 
average 
yield 



Highest 
average 
yield 



CHART NO. 4. 
Yield per Acre in United States from 1866-1907. 



1907 
1900-1907 
1890- 1900 
1880-1890 
1870-1880 
1866-1870 



10 



Bushels. 

1.5 'O -25 .SO 



25A) Bu. 
25.7 " 
HA " 
24.1 " 
27.1 " 
24.. 6 " 



Note — The yields designated represent the average yield for the periods' indi- 
cated to the left of chart. 

In order that we may have some idea in regard to the rate of 
production among the several states of the Union it will be well to give 
some attention to the following table : 



16 



CORN. 



AVERAGE YIELD PER ACRE. 1879-1908. 



Rank 



3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 

13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
31 
32 
24 
24 
25 



New Hampshire 

Ohio 

Iowa 

Vermont 

Massaceusetts 

Illinois 

Connecticut 

Maine .. 

Indiana 

Pennsylvania 

New Jersey 

Nebraska 

Wisconsin 

Rhode Island 

Missouri 

Michigan 

California 

District of Columbia 

Minnesota 

New York 

Kansas 

Maryland 

Indian Territory 

Idaho 

Kentucky 



Bushels 



38.9 
38.0 
37.9 
37 9 
37.2 
36 9 
35.9 
35.3 
34.4 
33.7 
33.4 
33 1 
32 9 
32 6 
31.9 
31.0 
30.8 
30.7 
30.3 
30.3 
29.1 
28.4 
26.0 
25 3 
25.3 



Rank 



26 
27 
29 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 



Nevada 

West Virginia 

Oklahoma 

South Dakota 

Arizona 

Oregon 

Tennessee 

Delaware 

Montana 

Washington, 

New Mexico 

Virginia 

North Dakota 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Utah 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

Mississippi 

Louisana 

Alabama 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 



NOTE —In the above table Oklahoma, South Dakota, Wyoming, Nevada, and District of Columbia, 
show and averagre yield only for 20 years, and Indian Territory for 10 years. Other states were 
figured on the 30 year basis. 




ip shire 
da 



ds 



age 



60 years, and t(i that end the accompaning map was 




It will be of some interest to know just what each state has been doing in the production of maize during the i)ast 60 years, and to that enc e atcompan 
prepared. This shows the total production in bushels of each state from 1850, or from time first reported until 1907. 



PRODUCTION IN UNITED STATES. 



17 



New 



In the preceding table we find the states listed in the order of their 
average yield per acre, covering a 30-year period. New Hampshire 
stands first with 3^.8 bushels to its credit for every acre planted in Hampshire 
corn, and Florida takes last place with only 9.8 bushels. Thus we see f^^^^^ 
that in order to have a creditable average it is necessary for a large m 
number of the states to stand well to make up for those which tend to ^eYd^° 
pull down the average. 

If any definite conclusion may be taken from the table to which 
we have just been referred, we might say that the district of largest 
average yield extends from Maine south to Maryland, west, taking in 
a strip of corresponding width running gently southward to Cali- 
fornia. As we go south or north from this belt we find the average 
yield per acre gradually decreasing. However, this statement cannot 
be said to be absolute. 

Dividing the United States into the following five districts, North 
Atlantic, South Atlantic, North Central, South Central, and Western, ^^°^^ 
the following table shows the relative average production as found 
in the last census report: 



Iowa 
third 



PERCENTAGE OF PRODUCTION OF CORN IN THE UNITED STATES BY 

DISTRICTS. 1850 TO 1900. 

TABLE NO. 7. 



North Atlantic 


1900 

3.4 

C.3 
72.8 
17.3 . 

0.2 


1890 

3.4 

G.2 

75.3 

14.8 

0.3 


1880 

5.2 

7.4 

73.2 

14.0 

0.2 


1870 
8.8 
11.4 
57.7 
21.8 
0.3 


18G0 
8.0 
IG.O 
48.4 
27.4 
0.2 


1850 
9 G 


South Atlantic 


21 2 


North Central 


37.5 


South Central 

Western 


31.G 
0.1 







At present the North Central district produces nearly three-fourths 
of the entire annual yield of our country. The South Central district 
follows with a trifle over one-sixth of the total yield. Thus it is seen of 
that the North Atlantic, South Atlantic and Western sections com- Production 
bined produce barely one-tenth of our annual crop. 

The center of production of the corn crop has been moving slowly 
westward. Its position since 1850 is shown in the following table: 



TABLE NO. 8. 
North Latitude West Longitude 54 miles southwest of 

1900 39 -19'— 3b" 90"-27'— G' Springfield, Illinois. 

55 miles southwest of 

1890 39— IG— 57 90— 2G— 49 Springfield, Illinois. 

3G miles southwest of 

1880 39-28-12 89— 7—43 Springfield, Illinois. 

90 miles southwest of 

1870 38—47-13 87—14—15 Indianapolis, Indiana. 

47 miles southwest of 

1800 38— 1—54 80—29— 4 New Albany, Indiana. 

86 miles southeast of 

1850 39—14—54 81—43—38 Columbus, Ohio . 

Figures taken from Twelfth Census Report. 



118 



CORN. 



As we leave the map on production we are now prepared for a 
closer study of the progress made by each state during a correspond- 
ing period. The following diagram shows the rank of each state by 
consecutive decades from 1850 to 1900, and for 1907. It further shows 
the percentage of total crop produced by each state for a given period. 




PRODUCTION IN UNITED STATES. 



19 



Taking the states ranking from one to five inclusive, in 1907 we 
find Illinois first. Following the darts to the right we disclose the 
fact that only in 1890 and 1850 did this state fall below first place in first"" 
production. In 1850, at which time it ranked third, it produced 9.7 
per cent of the total production of the United States, and in 1907, 
13.2 per cent. Iowa stood seventeenth place in rank in 1850, first in lowa 
1890 and second in 1907. Missouri ranked sixth in 1850 and third in m^i'slo" 
1907. Nebraska, when first reported in i860, ranked thirty-first, and ^cond 
in 1907 ranked fourth. Indiana, however, fell from fourth place in '"^ ^^°' 
1850 to fifth place in 1907. 

Considering now just the ten states leading in production in 1907, 
let us first note the following chart for a comparative study: 



CHART NO. 5. 
Production of Corn in the Ten Leading States in 1907. 



Illinois - 
Iowa - - 
Missouri - 
Nebraska 
Indiana - 
Texas 
Kansas 
Ohio - - 
Oklahoma 
Kentucky 



100 


Millions of Uuslu 
-200 


>ls 
31 


)() 


Percent 
of Total 
iOO Pro 
clui-tion 




^^ 






10.4 
9.3 
6.9 
6 5 




^^ 








^^ 


_L 






^^ 


^S 




^™ 


^T 




6 




^™ 




5 9 




^^* 




4.5 




^B^l 










4.4 




^^H 






3.6 




H 



70.7 



Together these ten states produced 70.7 per cent or nearly three- 
fourths of the entire crop of 1907. Illinois, which was the heaviest 
producer, furnished 13.2 per cent of the entire crop, or 342,756,000 
bushels. Iowa stood second with 10.4 per cent of the entire crop, 
or 270,220,000 bushels. The crop of this state was severely damaged 
and diminished by extremely unfavorable weather throughout the 
entire season. Missouri ranked third, with 9.3 per cent of the entire 
production, or 241,025,000 bushels. Nebraska followed in fourth place 
with 6.9 per cent of the entire crop, or 179,328,000 bushels. Indiana 
in fifth place produced 6.5 per cent of the entire crop, or 168,840,000 
bushels. Texas ranked sixth with 6 per cent of the entire crop, or 



20 



CORN. 



155,589,000 bushels. Kansas ranked seventh with 5.9 per cent of the 
entire crop, or 155,142,000 bushels. Ohio stood eighth with 4.5 per 
cent of the entire crop, or 117,640,000 bushels. Oklahoma stood in 
ninth place with 4,4 per cent of entire crop, or 93,000,000 bushels. And 
last came Kentucky with 3.6 per cent of entire crop, or 78,364,000 
bushels. The standing of other states may be taken from the preced- 
ing charts. 

As has been stated before, the future increase in the production of 
corn in this country depends upon something more than increased 
acreage. We must now look to our seed selection, cultivation and 
crop rotation. 



VALUATION OF THE CORN CROP 

The proceeds from a single year's production of corn in the United 
States, considering only the raw product, would pay off our national 
debt. If the entire annual crop were to be moved at one time the 
transaction would take over one-third of all the money in circulation 
in this country. In 1907 the crop was valued at $1,336,901,000. 

The value of the annual corn crop as compared with all other 
cereals for consecutive periods beginning with 1866 is shown in 
the following chart : 



CHART NO. 6. 

Value of the Corn Crop as Related to Entire Value of All Cereal 

Crops. 1 866- 1 907. 



Millions of Dollars. 




Black portion of bar represents value of corn. 
Entire length of bar represents value of all cereals, 

NOTE. The valuations designated in above chart represent an average covering entire periods 
indicated to the left of chart. 



VALUATION OF CORN CROP. 



21 



From the preceding chart we find that the vakie of the corn crop 
is greater than that of all other cereals combined. For the past fifty 
years it has aggregated approximately 54 per cent of the entire value 
of all cereals including corn itself. 

The value of the annual corn crop from 1866 to 1907 may be as- 
certained by referring to table No. 5 on page 15. It is governed large- 
ly by production, varying slightly with the demand. 

The highest average price paid for corn in this country is recorded 
for 1901, and corresponds to the year of the lowest average yield. An 
average taken over any number of years for yield per acre and price 
per bushel shows a marked co-relation between the two. Yet this 
statement must necessarily be qualified slightly to meet the changing 
conditions of the times. For instance, the average price during the 
last seven years has been higher than for any previous decade follow- 
ing 1870. We find that as our system of farming becomes more in- 
tensive, and less of the raw product is exchanged, the law of increasing 
demand enters into the problem to affect price more prominently than 
ever before. 

By referring to the annual report of the Department of Agriculture 
for 1907, we find that the average price in different states varies 
greatly. The highest average price is recorded in Arizona and 
amounted to 90 cents per bushel, while the lowest of only 41 cents is 
found in Nebraska. A close study of this table shows that the prices 
increase as you move away from the center of production and vice 
versa, depending considerably, too, upon density of population and 
shipping facilities. 

In comparing the value of the corn crop of the United States with 
that of each of the other cereal crops for 1907, we find it even above 
the average. 

Note the following chart : 

CHART NO. 7. 

Valuation of the Corn Crop as Compared With Other Cereal Crops 

in the United States for 1907. 

Millions of Dollars 



Supply 

and 

demand 



Prices 

increase 

as you 

move awa; 

from 

center 

of 

production 

and 

vice versa 



Corn - - 

Wheat - 

Oats - - 

Barley - 

Rye - - 



¥^ 



Percent 

of 

total 

56.8 

23.6 

14.2 

4.3 

1.1 



22 



CORN. 



Let us now consider from a similar standpoint the ten states top- 
ping the list in the production of corn in 1907. We will note first the 
comparative value of this crop as related to that of other cereal crops, 
and second as related to the total value of all farm products, including 
live stock, dairy products, etc. These states will be considered sep- 
arately in descending order of production. Note accompanying charts 
for comparative value of cereals. 

ILLINOIS. 

Value of corn crop in 1907 $150,813,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereals in 1907 51.3 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 24.5 

CHART NO. 8. 
Value of Corn Crop as Compared With Other Cereal Crops in 

Illinois, in 1907. 

[Millions of Dollars. 



—I ©i 



IOWA. 

Value of corn crop of 1907 $82,582,186 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 55.8 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 22.6 

CHART NO. 9. 
Valuation of the Corn Crop in Iowa as Compared With Other Cereal 

Crops in 1907. 
Millions of Dollars, 



a ^ r-^ 



Corn 

Oats 

Barley 

Wheat 

Rye 



Percent 

r^ 67.1 

24.4 

4.7 

3.5 

.3 



VALUATION OF CORN CROP. 23 

PERCENTAGE OF CROPPING AREA DEVOTED TO CROPS MENTIONED. 

The following table should be studied in connection with map on page 25. 
Per cent is in proportion to the area devoted to the production of the crops 
mentioned, not the total area of the county. 



Corn 



Small Grain 



Timothy* 



Clover 



Adair 

Adams 

Allamakee 

Appanoose 

Audubon 

Benton 

Black Hawk 

Boone 

Bremer 

Buchanan 

Buena Vista 

Butler 

Calhoun 

Carroll 

Cass 

Cedar 

Cerro Gordo 

Cherokee 

Chickasaw 

Clarke 

Clay 

Clayton I 

Clinton 

Crawford j 

Dallas I 

Davis I 

Decatur j 

Delaware | 

Des Moines I 

Dickinson | 

Dubuque I 

Emmet j 

Fayette I 

Floyd I 

Franklin j 

Fremont | 

Greene i 

Grundy j 

Guthrie 

Hamilton | 

Hancock | 

Hardin | 

Harrison | 

Henry | 

Howard | 

Humboldt | 

Ida I 

Iowa I 

Jackson | 

Jasper | 

Jefferson | 

Johnson j 

Jones I 



54 Percent 

57 

32 

44 

53 

50 

53 

59 

43 

48 

52 

51 

55 

53 

57 

51 

46 

53 
40 

45 

49 
36 

54 

54 

62 

45 

52 

48 

52 

43 

39 

45 

41 

45 

50^ •" 

78 

59 

51 

53 

55 

44 

55 

71 

52 

34 

50 

56 

52 

43 

60 

50 

50 

50 



22 
16 
38 
9 
29 
32 
29 
27 
41 
28 
36 
37 
35 
34 
23 
25 
39 
33 
44 
13 
38 
39 
23 
31 
22 
14 
12 
28 
26 
46 
32 
40 
34 
40 
37 
11 
26 
37 
28 
30 
44 
32 
22 
25 
44 
35 
30 
25 
23 
23 
24 
25 
21 



Percent, 



22 Percent. 

25 

29 

46 

15 

17 

17 

13 

15 

23 

11 

12 

11 

11 

18 

23 

14 

12 

16 •• I 

40 " I 
14 " I 
24 " I 
22 •• I 
14 " I 
13 " 1 

41 " I 
36 •• I 
24 •' I 
21 
11 
29 
14 
25 
14 
13 
10 
13 
11 
18 
13 
12 
13 

6 
21 
22 
14 
11 
23 
34 
17 
24 
24 
29 



2. 

2. 

1. 
.5 

2.0 
.8 

1. 

1. 
.2 
.1 
.9 



2. 
2.7 
.6 
.8 
2. 

.1 

1.3 

.5 

.6 

.9 

1.8 

2.2 

.9 

.4 

.5 

1.5 

.2 

.4 

.5 

.2 

.4 

.8 

1.5 

1.4 

1.1 

23 

15 

.4 

.6 

1.3 

1.7 

.2 

1.2 

27 

.6 

.5 

1.3 

1.3 

.4 

.7 



Perceuc 



24 



CORN. 



Keokuk 

Kossuth 

Lee 

Linn 

Louisa 

Lucas 

Lyon 

Madison 

Mahaska .... 

Marion 

Marshall .... 

Mills 

Mitchell 

Monona 

Monroe 

Montgomery . 
Muscatine . . . 

O'Brien 

Osceola 

Page 

Palo Alto 

Plymouth . . . 
Pocahontas . . 
Pottawattamie 
Poweshiek . . 

Polk 

Ringgold 

Sac 

Scott 

Shelby 

Sioux 

Story 

Tama 

Taylor 

Union 

Van Buren . . 

Wayne 

Wapello 

Warren 

Washington . 

Webster 

Winnebago . . 
Winneshiek. . 
Woodbury . . . 

Worth 

Wright 



Corn 


Small Grain 


Timothy* 




54 Percent. 


23 Percent 


1 23 Percent. 


.8 


47 


42 


11 


.3 


44 


27 


29 


.9 


50 


25 


25 


.6 


61 


24 


15 


.7 


46 


14 


40 


.5 


33 


62 


5 


.7 


56 


17 


25 


2.2 


58 


21 


19 


1.7 


59 


19 


20 


2.2 


55 


29 


14 


2.3 


69 


16 


14 


1.6 


34 


50 


16 


.4 


72 


24 


3 


.4 


46 


12 


41 


.6 


59 


19 


19 


2.7 


57 


25 


19 


.2 


47 


42 


11 


.5 


38 


51 


11 


.5 


64 


16 


17 


3.8 


51 


40 


9 


.4 


52 


41 


6 


.9 


51 


40 


10 


.3 


65 


21 


11 


2.4 


54 


23 


21 


1.4 


60 


23 


16 


.2 


49 


15 


36 


.7 


55 


29 " 


14 


1.9 


47 


35 


17 


.5 


56 


28 


13 


3.7 


47 


46 


5 


1.4 


59 


27 


13 


.7 


47 


30 


22 


1.5 


57 


14 


28 


1.7 


50 " 


15 


34 


1.0 


40 


18 


40 


1.5 


45 


11 


44 


.3 


52 


18 


30 


.8 


57 


16 


25 


1.7 


54 


24 


21 


1.6 


52 


36 


11 


.8 


44 


43 


13 


.8 


35 


43 


22 


.5 


65 


29 


5 


1.4 


32 


51 


15 


1.3 


43 


46 


10 


1.1 



Clover 
Percent. 



*Including clover and timothy mixed. 



26 CORN. 

MISSOURI. 

Value of the corn crop of 1907 , $113,282,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 74.3 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 26.9 

CHART NO. 10. 
Value of the Gorn Crop as Compared With Other* Cereal Crops in 

Missouri in 1907. 

Millions of Dollars. 



Corn - - 

Wheat - 

Barley - 

Oats - - 

Rye - - 



^ (3^ Percent 
-^ -' of total 

^■~| 74.3 

16.1 

3.4 

6.1 

.1 



NEBRASKA. 

Value of corn crop of 1907 $ 73,524,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 , 56.2 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900. ...... 40.I 



CHART NO. II. 
Value of the Corn Crop as Compared With Other Cereal Crops in 

Nebraska in 1907. 

Millions of Dollars. 
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 



Corn - - 

Wheat - 

Oats - - 

Barley - 

Rye - - 



Percent 
of total 

56.2 

27.6 

14.6 

.9 

.7 



INDIANA. 

Value of the corn crop of 1907 $ 75,978,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 62.2 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 24.1 



VALUATION OF CORN CROPS. 



il 



CHART NO. 12. 
Valuation of Corn Crop as Compared With Other Cereal Crops in 

Indiana in 1907. 

Millions of Dollars. 
10 20 30 4-0 50 60 70 80 



Corn - 
Wheat 
Oats - 
Rye - 
Barley 




rercent 

63.3 

24.5 

19.6 

.6 

.1 



TEXAS. 

Value of corn crop in 1907 $ 93,353-000 

Per cent of total value of all cereals in 1907 9^-^ 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 16. i 

CHART NO. 13. 
Valuation of the Corn Crop as Compared With Other Cereal Crops 

in Texas in 1907. 
Millions of Dollars. 



Corn - 
Oats - 
Wheat 
Barley 
Rye - 



2 Percent 
of total 

91.6 

5.6 

2.7 

.05 

.04 



KANSAS. 

Value of corn crop of 1907 $ 68,262,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereals in 1907 51.8 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 24.9 

CHART NO. 14. 

Value of the Corn Crop as Compared With Other Cereal Crops in 

Kansas in 1907. 



Millions of Dollars. 



10 20 30 40 50 



Corn - 
Wheat 
Oats - 
Barley 
Rye - 



60 70 rercent 
of total 

51.8 

40.9 

5.2 

1.8 

.3 



2S 



CORN. 

OHIO. 



Value of the corn crop of 1907 $ 61,173,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 57.2 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 14.I 



CHART NO. 15. 

Valuation of the Corn Crop in Ohio as Compared With Other Cereal 

Crops in 1907. 

Millions of Dollars. 

10 20 30 40 50 



Corn - 
Wheat 
Oats - 
Rye - 
Barley 




60 70 Percent 

57.2 

26.4 

15.3 

.6 

.5 



OKLAHOMA. 

Value of the corn crop of 1907 $ 89,837,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 74.O 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 8.1 



CHART NO. 16. 
Valuation of Corn Crop in Oklahoma as Compared With Other Cereal 

Crops in 1907. 



Corn - 
Wheat 
Oats - 
Barley 
Rye - 



Millions of Dollars. 
10 20 30 40 50 60 



70 



80 90„ 

Percent 

ifHIH] 74.0 

23.2 

2.5 

.3 



KENTUCKY. 

Value of the corn of 1907 $ 49,322,000 

Per cent of total value of all cereal crops in 1907 83.3 

Per cent of total value of all farm products in 1900 22.5 



VALUATION OF CORN CROPS. 29 

CHART NO. 17. 

Valuation of the Corn Crop in Kentucky as Compared With All Other 

Cereal Crops in 1907. 

Millions of Dollars. 



Q Percent 

oooooooocoof total 




Com - 
Wheat 
Oats - 
Rye - 
Barley 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

In securing data relating to the history of corn we have drawn 
largely from the botanical works of such authors as DeCandolle, 
Sturtevant, Watson and Bailey, The local coloring given had largely 
for its inception the reports of Agricultural Societies which existed 
early in the past century and during the closing decade of the century 
preceding. Besides these sources, the agricultural journals on file in 
the State Library at Des Moines presented a very complete record of 
the progress made in corn growing since the early days of our country. 

The figures quoted in the chapter on Acreage, Production, Distri- 
bution and Valuation, were taken largely from the annual reports of 
the National Secretary of Agriculture, and from the decennary census 
reports. For the figures quoted for 1907 we are debtors to the cour- 
tesy of J. C. Simpson, Secretary of the Iowa State Board of Agricul- 
ture, and to the United States Department of Agriculture. 

COLLATERAL READING 

In extending the research relative to the history and past produc- 
tion of corn, most excellent references may be found in the old files 
of the Iowa State Library at Des Moines, in the Historical Building. 
A complete file of old Agricultural Reports and farm journals, with a 
splendid botanical library, furnish an abundance of material for further 
work. Anyone who is not located within range of this library, how- 
ever, may do well in other state or national libraries or in any private 
library where special efforts have been made in securing and cata- 
loging data bearing on farm problems. 



30 



THE 



CORN. 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES 
OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES 



Mexican 
labor 



MEXICO 

The Awakening in Agriculture in Mexico 

Dr. Pehr Olsson-Seffer was commissioned in 1906 to investigate 
Mexican Agricultural conditions. In hrs recent report (spring of 
1908), he recommended the establishment of a Department of Agricul- 
ture for the nation. The Mexican National Railroad, in the summer 
of 1908, made plans to put on special corn trains as was done in Iowa 
several years ago. 

A great many ranchers in Chihuahua and Durango have for some 
time employed improved methods and selected their seed corn. Presi- 
dent Diaz has always been interested in the farmers. A leader in the 
greater movement is Mr. Zeferino Dominguez, a Mexican owner of 
owners furnish each peon family with an adobe house, a yoke of 
large haciendas in the Northeast Mexico. His trips to the United 
States have resulted in the introduction of better seed. A great many 
students from the northern states of Mexico have graduated from the 
Agricultural Colleges of the United States. Jose Mora, Bishop of the 
State of Leon, has arranged a course of lectures to be given to farmers 
throughout Mexico. The greatest good will come with increased 
facilities for irrigation. 

The Peonage System 

All work of an agricultural nature is done by the peon or native. 
The landlords own very large tracts of land. Many ranches contain 
one million acres. Ten thousand acre haciendas are common. These 
owners furnish each peon family with an adobe house, a yoke of 
oxen, seed, and such rude agricultural implements as are considered 
necessary. The peon is charged with one-half the seed, and the rent- 
ing price of the oxen. Any food bought is charged against him at 
the store which appears on the larger ranches. At the end of the year 
settlements are made after the landlord has deducted all advances 
made to the peon during the season. Farm laborers who are paid 
directly receive certain daily rations and ten dollars Mexican (five 
dollars gold), a total of fifteen dollars Mexican, per year. 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. :;i 

The Tortilla. (The Bread of the Natives of Mexico.) 

The "tortilla" or "corn cake" of Mexico is the "staff of life" of 90 
per cent of the native Mexican people. The total annual consump- 
tion of tortillas is valued at $76,560,000 gold. 

The tortilla is made from shelled corn which has been put in an Tortuia 

'^ made 

earthenware iar and covered with rather strong lime water and from 

•" ° corn 

allowed to soak over night. The swollen grains are then ground be- 
tween mill stones. The hull, being very tender because of soaking, is 
ground with the kernel. Every town of one thousand inhabitants has 
a mill of this kind. The ground mass comes out as a doughy "massa." 
During the grinding, cold water is slowly poured on the meal through 
the mill. Hence the ground material is about three-fourths greater in 
bulk than the original swelled kernels. 

Size 

The regulation size of the tortillas is from four to five inches in 
diameter. They are served with strips of mutton or beef and seasoned 
with salt and "salsa," or "sauce." The baking which requires but three 
minutes is done over charcoal burners. 

The tortilla has come to be a specialized product in the larger Bakirg 
cities. In Mexico City alone there are one thousand tortilla makers. 

The Production of Corn in Mexico 

Because the climatic and soil conditions vary so much in different 
parts of Mexico the discussion will here be taken up by states. 

SONORA*. Sonora is a large state in the northwest corner of ciimate 
Mexico. It is bounded on the North by Arizona, and on the West by 
the Gulf of California. The maximum temperature in July, 1906, was 
99 degrees Fahrenheit, and the minimum 81 degrees Fahrenheit. Dur- 
ing the months of July and August the temperature is very consist- 
ently high. In February, 1908, the maximum rose to 76 degrees F., 
while the minimum dropped to 53 degrees F. Fifty degrees F. 
recorded on December 22, 1907, at Hermosillo, was the coldest day 
during the fiscal year of 1907. There were produced in this state in 
1907, as far as reports could be obtained, 1,872,419.2 bushels, with an 
average production of 25 bushels per acre, or a total of 78,096.8 acres. 

The price per bushel in American gold was about i cent per pound. 
Improved methods and American machinery are being used. The o"''* 
prospects are quite favorable for this state becoming a corn growing "^^^^ 
region. The flint type is mostly grown at present. 

* American Consul Hermosillo, Sonora. 



32 



CORN. 



RalnfaU 



Planting 



On a 

plateau 



LOWER CALIFORNIA.* The northern part of this peninsula 
is in a valley adapted to corn growing. The soil is a sandy loam, being 
very fertile and productive when irrigated. The rainfall has not in 
twenty-two years exceeded an average of lo^^ inches. Some growers 
are introducing the dent varieties, but the flint corn is usually grown. 
The limited supply and large demand for human consumption has 
raised the price to 56 cents per bushel. 

The extreme southern part of this narrow strip of land is mostly a 
mining district.** Corn is imported to La Paz, B. C, from across the 
Gulf of California in Sinaloa. The price is approximately 64 cents 
ptr bushel. 

CHIHUAHUA.*** Chihuahua is a very large state, being a min- 
ing district in the north, grazing in the central, and farming in the 
south. South of the capital city, Chihuahua, the acreage of corn is 
large and increasing. The corn on the irrigated lands is planted 2 or 3 
inches deep and yields 30 to 50 bushels. As there are 19 inches of 
rainfall annually in this district, fair yields are obtained from the dry 
farming fields. The precipitation occurs in July, August and Sep- 
tember, and usually falls in torrents. On this land the corn is planted 
four to five inches deep. The varieties are largely dent corn at pres- 
ent, and improved methods are gradually being adopted by the farm- 
ing classes. Chihuahua is one of the states of Mexico which will in 
the near future grasp agricultural opportunities. An Agricultural 
College has been established at Cuidad Juarez, which is just across 
the river from El Paso, Texas. 

COAHUILA.**** Coahuila is just east of Chihuahua and extends to 
the Rio Grande on the north. A large area of this state is in corn. The 
fact that laborers secure higher wages in the mines has a tendency to 
check the development of new areas. Although crude methods of 
cultivating and harvesting are used, yields of 30 bushels are common. 
Prices range from 60 to 90 cents per bushel. Some of the seed com- 
panies of the United States secure seed for what is termed "June 
Corn" from this state. It is a short season crop, maturing in three 
months. The crop of this state is mostly all flint corn. Development 
depends upon the increased facilities for irrigation. 

SINALOA.***** Sinaloa is a long, narrow state on the west coast of 
the mainland just east of the southern point of Lower California. Al- 
though a comparatively undeveloped district, this state is now a large 

*American Consul Ensenda, L. C. 
**American Consul La Paz. B. C. 
***American Consul, Cuidad Juarez. 
****American Consul, Cuidad Porfirio Diaz. 
*****American Consul Mazatalan. 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. n3 

producer of corn and bids fair to increase rapidly in the future. Al- 
ready some corn is being exported. 

DURANGO.* The state of Durango, situated in the North Cen- 
tral plateau of Mexico, has a mean altitude of about 5,000 feet, with 
climatic conditions varying with the altitudes. These range from 
2,000 feet in the valleys of the eastern portion of the state to 12,000 
feet in the Sierra Madre mountains. 

Corn is, and ever has been, one of the principal crops where the 
elevation is 5,000 feet or more. Compared with the whole state, the 
acreage devoted to corn is small, it being confined to the table-lands 
near the mountains, where rainfall is frequent; and to other lands 
which can be irrigated. 

Roughly, it is estimated that last year 300,000 acres were planted 
to corn and that the average yield per acre was 15 bushels, making a 
total crop of 4,500,000 bushels. The price, on account of the drought, ^,1^^ 
has been exceptionally high ; in fact, the highest ever known in the ^°' *^°'° 
history of this part of Mexico. Corn has sold as high as $1.25 gold 
per bushel, and not less than 80 cents. No corn is exported from the 
country, and but little from the state. It is, with beans, the principal 
article of food for the people of the country, and in times of abundance 
the surplus finds a ready sale in the numerous nearby mining camps. 
At all times the local demand far exceeds the supply. The corn of 
this part of Mexico is a species of the flint, but of a mixed mongrel 
breed. 

The climate naturally varies with the altitude, but in the parts of 
Durango where corn is raised, it is temperate with fairly abundant 
rainfall near the mountains during the so-called rainy season, which 
lasts from May until October. This so-called rainy season is not to be 
depended upon to insure moisture sufficient for the crops, as was seen 
in 1907, when but little rain fell and the only full harvests were secured 
by those aided by irrigation. 

The mean annual temperature of the corn lands is about 60 degrees 
F. December is the coldest month of the year. At that time the '^^'"P""*"" 
thermometer often drops during the night to 28 degrees F. May is 
the hot month during which 90 degrees F. is frequently registered. In 
the low lands and mountains the variation is much greater. 

The soil, in general, is a light loam with a tendency to a clay forma- 
tion which packs hard after rains, but in working pulverizes easily, cultivation 
For corn, no fertilizer is or ever has been used, irrigation being the 
only auxiliary. Corn was raised in this state before the advent of the 

^American Consul, Durango. 



34 



CORN. 



H 



future 



Spaniards, and the methods as practiced by the farmers in general 
have not been changed in the last two hundred years. The land to-day, 
as then, is plowed with a crooked stick or wooden plow, and the plow- 
ing, where there is no irrigation, commences with the first rains. The 
corn is dropped and covered by hand. The only cultivation it receives 
is with the same plow that was used to break up the soil. Such a 
thing as a harrow or cultivator is to be found only among the most 
progressive. When the corn is well along in the milk, it is topped to 
hasten the ripening. The tops are saved for fodder, taking the place 
of hay, of which none is raised. 

The prospect for the future of corn growing is for improvement 
in every way. Nevertheless, the change for the better will be slow for 
various reasons. Already many of the progressive ranchers are, in a 
Brighter limited way, introducing improved implements and using approved 
methods, but the majority are more than conservative. Here labor is 
cheap and the style of farming too well established to be easily 
changed. 

No experiments in corn raising, as it is understood in the United 
States, are being carried on in this state, but Americans who have 
invested in farming and ranch lands are cautiously, carefully, and 
gradually introducing new imported seed, up-to-date implements and 
approved methods. New tools and new methods are introduced only 
by asking the most intelligent laborers, as a favor, to use them for a 
season, and guaranteeing them against loss. Should the result be an 
increased harvest it gives the owner a chance, by the object lesson, to 
equip others. 

NUEVO LEON.* Nuevo Leon, which lies in the northeastern 
part of Mexico, next to the Rio Grande, is not an agricultural state, be- 
ing mostly mining and manufacturing. It is estimated that 15,000 acres 
were planted in 1907. Much of the soil is fertile and adapted to corn, 
but except for irrigation the crop is very light. Where sufficient water 
is at hand for irrigation two crops annually are not uncommon. 
Thirty bushels of corn of the flint type is good yield. The present 
price per bushel (June, 1908) is $1.20 in American currency. The 
methods of cultivating are crude. The whole stalk is usually har- 
vested, the corn being husked out afterward by hand. In the south- 
eastern part of this state American farmers are moving in and develop- 
ing large areas of the more fertile lands. With irrigation the alluvial 
soils along the Rio Grande will produce heavy yields of corn. The 
rainfall here is 18 to 20 inches annually. 

*Americaii Consul General, Monterey. 



Experiments 



Farmers 

coming in 

from 

South America 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. 



S5 



TAMAULIPAS.* Because of the slight rainfall and the lack of 
irrigation on this side of the Rio Grande, there is at present very little 
agricultural activity in this consular district. However, corn may be 
said to be one of the staple crops. Although conditions seem to war- 
rant the claim that three crops per year can be grown, yet the farmers 
only attempt to raise two. The average yield per acre of each crop is 
said to be about 35 or 40 bushels, but it is believed that this could be 
greatly increased by irrigation and proper care and cultivation. 

New corn is worth at the present time (June 23, 1908) about $12.00, 
Mexican money, per cargo of 312 pounds, or between $1.00 and $1.10, 
American money, per bushel. Old corn which is coming from Mon- 
terey sells for $14.00, j\Iexican money, per cargo, or about $1.25 
American money, per bushel. During the year the price of corn ranges 
from $8.00 to $16.00 per cargo, or from 70 cents to $1.40 per bushri. 
American money. 

There is not sufficient corn raised in the district to supply the de- 
mand, consequently there is no corn exported. A great deal of corn 
is shipped into this city from the interior and some is brought over 
from Brownsville, Texas. 

The corn planted is a dent variety known here as the "Mexican 
Creole." No particular care has been given in the past to the selection 
of corn for planting. This year, however, Senor Jorge Webber of this 
city, sent to Mexico City to obtain a better variety of corn and obtained 
a "starch corn." The grains were large, but were not uniform. It was 
very soft and seemed to be very full of starch or flour. 

Statistics showing the average rainfall and temperature in this dis- 
trict are not obtainable, but it is reasonable to state that they cannot 
be very different from those for Brownsville, Texas, which is just 
across the Rio Grande. 

The following table of statistics was secured from Mr. Charles M. 
Barnes, Secretary of the Lower Rio Grande Commercial Club of 
Brownsville. This table was made up from statistics and observations 
taken by the medical department and weather observers at Fort Brown 
before the abandonment of that post, and cover a period of seventeen 
years, from which the average is made. 



Mean Average Temperature 



Mean Av. Rainfall 



January | 

February 

March | 

April I 

May I 

June I 

July 

August I 

September | 

October | 

November | 

December | 

Annual mean i 

American Consul, Nuevo Laredo. 
.Amvviciin Consul. i[atanioras. 



5G.C 
G3.3 
C8.3 
73.G 
78.5 
82.3 
83.4 
83.3 
79.8 
74.2 
C7.1 
Cl.G 
72.8 



1.59 
1.51 
1.32 
.93 
2.42 
2.01 
2.04 
3.3G 
7.30 
4.35 
2.00 
1.64 
30.52 



Prices 

in 

1908 



Methods 

of 

planting 



3G 



CORN. 



In order that this table will not be misleading, it is well to state 
that summer weather begins about March ist and continues into 
October, and that from June ist until September ist the temperature 
in the sun ranges from 90 degrees upward. During the winter months 
there are generally two or three light frosts and once in a long while 
there will be a heavy frost. 

AGUASCALIENTES.* The district of Aguascalientes is in Cen- 
tral Mexico just north of the capital city. 

In the district of Aguascalientes, corn is the chief product of 
agriculture, varying every year according to the amount of rain. The 
Season rainy season commences about June 15th and lasts until the end of 
September. It is impossible to estimate the number of inches as no 
official data is kept of the fall. The character of the climate is sub- 
tropical, tempered by the high altitude, the average temperature being 
from 75 to 85 degrees F. 

The prevailing soil is poor and sandy, but in the lowlands, which 
are scarce, it is of a loamy quality. No fertilizer is used to enrich it, 
and agricultural products are allowed to grow under natural con- 
ditions. 

Planting is done almost entirely by wooden plows, a few disc plows 
being used on the large farms and ranches. One man plovv's the soil 
then makes a furrow in which a boy alternately drops three grains of 
corn and two of beans. When the corn is a few inches high, it is 
banked up, and two or three cultivations given with the plow. The 
corn when ripe is topped, over the ear, and the toppings used for 
fodder. After the first frosts, the ears are stripped by hand and thrown 
into a basket carried upon the back of the peon. Cattle are then 
turned into the field to pick up what is left. 

There are three kinds of corn grown in the state of Aguascalientes 
which are similar to the pod and dent corn of the United States. The 
first one is called "mais de riego" or irrigated corn, which is planted 
after the frost when the soil is warm, that is to say, during the month 
of March. The growing period is of seven months and produces as a 
rule from 300 to 500 bushels of corn for each bushel sowed. The 
"mais poblano," sowed during the early rains in May, needs four 
months to grow and produces as much as 200 bushels of corn for each 
bushel planted. The "mais temporal," or "pepitills," is seeded during 
the regular rains of June and July and is harvested three months 
afterward, producing from 50 to 100 bushels for each bushel sowed. 

There is no data as to the cultivation by acres. As a rule the peons 
receive all the land that they can take care of, one man generally 



Planting 



Cultivating 



.Classes 

of 

corn 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COFNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. Zl 

taking care of two fanegas, about lyyi acres, which he cultivates with 
two oxen. 

The retail price of corn is very high, selling at from $4.00 to $4.50, 
Mexican ($2.00 to $2.25, United States) per hectolitre (2.8378 bush- 
els). For this reason none is used for feeding cattle, and none is 
exported. The total output being consumed by the people in the form 
of bread and "tortillas," a kind of corn pancake. 

There are no experiments being made at the present time to place 
agriculture on a scientific basis. 

COLIMA.* Colima is a small state on the west coast just due wc^t 
qf Mexico City. "Relating to corn growing in the state of Colima, 
Mexico, I have to state that corn is one of the principal crops of this Jo'^ug^eis 
section. The exact acreage is not known, no statistics being compiled. 
However, from what information I can obtain I would report about 
25,000 acres being planted with corn annually in the state. The aver- 
age yield per acre is from 25 to 30 bushels, which could probably be 
almost doubled by irrigation. The price of corn here is from 30 cents 
to $1.00 United States gold per bushel. Last year the price was higher 
than it had been for many years, in some few instances selling for a;^ 
much as $1.10 per bushel. The average price was about 45 to 50 cents 
per bushel. At the present time it is selling for 40 cents. Very little 
corn is exported at present. In former years a fair amount was ex- 
ported to Central America ; none was exported last year, however. 
When the price justifies, considerable corn is shipped to Mazatlan in 
the state of Sinaloa. 

"The corn raised here is the dent and tiint corn and is used by the 
natives for making their corn cakes (tortillas) which with beans 
(Frijoles) make up the menu of their daily fare. The leaves are also 
stripped from the stalks and with the corn are used for fodder. Hogs 
are fattened with corn for the purpose of making lard to be used in 
soap making, only about 23 per cent of the lard made being used for 
cooking purposes. 

"The climate is hot and divided into two seasons, wet and dry, the 
wet season beginning in June and the dry in December or January, ciimate 
The amount of rainfall varies in different years, that of 1906 being 
especially heavy, 45 inches of rain falling during a three days' storm in 
the latter part of September of that year. A conservative estimate of 
the average annual rainfall, however, would be from 50 to 55 inches. 
The average temperature is 88 degrees F. 

*Amerijaii Consul, Manzanillo. 



3S 



CORN. 



Rich 

alluvial 

aoil 



"The character of the soil in the valleys is rich alluvial, and with 
improved methods of cultivation would yield large returns. No fer- 
tilizer is used. The method of planting is still rather primitive except 
on a few of the up-to-date ranches. The Indians select a place on the 
hilltops or mountains of their lands to get abundant rainfall and be 
free from the depredations of cattle, and begin clearing the brush and 
cutting the timber, letting it dry where it falls and then setting fire 
to it, burning over the cleared ground. The stumps and trunks of trees 
are left as they are, no effort being made to remove them. When the 
first rains come the corn is planted by taking a sharp stick, making a 
hole in the ground and dropping three or four kernels of corn into it, 
then covering it with dirt by hand or foot. 

"No further attention is paid to it until it is ready for gathering in 
the fall. The ears are then picked from the stalks and carried in bas- 
kets to the houses or shacks of the owners. The leaves are then gath- 
ered from the stalks for fodder and the cattle allowed to go into the 
fields to feed. If the same field is utilized the next year for corn, the 
weeds and brush that may have grown up are burned off again and the 
corn planted as before, but on account of the rapidly growing weeds 
it will be necessary once during the season to go over the ground 
with a hoe to cut down the weeds. The land is not used again for 
corn, as the weeds would necessitate too much attention and a new 
piece of land is selected for the next year's crop and cleared and burned 
over in like manner. Where land is used after the second year for 
corn it is plowed over, the trunks of the trees then being cleared out 
somewhat, but the stumps remain. The plows used are the curious 
Mexican wooden plows called 'bull tongues.' They have one handle 
and are drawn by oxen. They have a small cross-piece near the point 
to turn the soil to one side. 

"There are now two large ranches in the state owned by Americans 
Railroad and scvcral by Mexicans where corn is raised and cultivated by mod- 
ern methods, which are meeting with success. The future for corn 
here seems to be good, as the Mexican Central railroad now building to 
Guadalajara, and to be completed before the end of the present year, 
will give new markets in a good mining region. 

(lliere are no experiment stations in this state at the present time.) 

VERA CRUZ.* Vera Cruz extends along the eastern or Gulf 
coast of Mexico for considerable distance. The altitude is very high 
because of the mountains being so near the coast. The soil is quite 
fertile, and the rainfall is abundant, being about 132 inches. The corn 

*American Consul, Vera Cruz. 



Price 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. 39 

is planted in hills 30 inches apart, two kernels in the hill. Yields of 
20 to 50 bushels are common. The price here varies from 50 cents to 
$1.00 per bushel (gold). 

YUCATAN.* Yucatan forms the eastern and northern part of the 
peninsula of Yucatan. It has an area of 33,108 square miles, and a 
population of about 300,000. The surface is mostly low. The soil is 
of the rocky lime-stone variety. The climate is sub-tropical, averaging 
81 degrees in summer and 69 degrees in winter. Rainfall is generally 
irregular and scant. The type of corn grown there is white and yellow 
tropical Indian corn. It is used for making tortillas and for fattening 
cattle. The average yield per acre is 20 bushels, and the present price 
per bushel is 75 cents. The ancient method of planting is employed, 
A clearing is burned and the corn planted in stake holes. The only 
cultivation is the weeding of the land. It is probable that more corn 
will be grown in the future. 

Argentine Republic 

Argentine Republic extends over 2,300 miles of latitude. Of the 
four provinces, Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Cordoba, and Entre Rios, the 
first two are the largest corn producers. 

These areas lie within the limits of 35 and 30 degrees south latitude. 
However, some good corn is grown as far north as 24 degrees south 
latitude. 

The average annual temperature at Buenos Aires from 1856 to 1875 
was 62.9 degrees, from 1876 to 1896, 61.5 degrees, and from 1897 to Mean 
1900, 63.1 degrees. These represent quite fairly the averages of the temperature 
principal corn regions. The temperature in this part of the corn belt 
seldom rises above 95 degrees, but seems much higher because of the 
excessive humidity of the atmosphere. 

The corn district of Argentine has an average annual rainfall of 
31.52 to 39.40 inches, which is quite evenly divided between the two 
seasons. The number of days during which some rain falls varies 
from 39.2 to 82.2 in different parts of the corn growing region. 

The corn land, being owned by wealthy landlords, is farmed by 
renters or "colonists" who have no serious ideas of home-building. 
The different ranches are specialized in different crops. Alfalfa or 
wheat may be grown entirely for a series of years. Rents range from 
$1.25 to $4.50 per acre. Usually one-half of this must be paid in 
advance. 

*American Vice Consnl Progress, Yucatan. 



40 



CORN. 



Corn planting begins August 15th and may continue as late as 
January 15th. The safest time, however, is September 15th to De- 
cember 31st. The early planted corn usually yields more heavily. The 
^"^" rows range from 10 to 36 inches apart. During the last few years a 
planting number of American corn planters are being introduced, but all of 
them are used simply for drilling, no checking being done. When the 
plants are two or three inches in height the land is harrowed. Nothing 
more is done until the corn is 12 inches high, wh-jn an implement with 
a double mold-board like a lister is run through and the rows hilled up. 

Ninety per cent of the corn grown in Argentina is of the flint type. 
This corn yields heavily, an average of 50 and 60 bushels being com- 
mon in the better districts. This corn is less absorbent of moisture 
varietiei ^^^^ consequently less liable to heating when passing the equatorial 
zone enroute to Europe. North American varieties like the Hickory 
King, a white corn, and Queen, a yellow variety, have been tried with 
success. 

No fear of frost presses the farmers in regard to selecting the seed 
corn early, because the ears often remain on the stalk for two months 
after matured. However, the farmers are very anxious to get the corn 
gathered and shelled in order to reach the seaboard before the wet sea- 
son begins. Hence, some years a great deal of immature corn is 
shipped out. In 1902 Argentina exported 55.75 per cent of the corn 
produced. With development in the packing and slaughtering meth- 
ods more corn will be fed at home. 

The export corn is often shipped as ballast in the mail 
and line steam ships. Most all the corn is shipped in bags. The ocean 
Exporting rates vary from 8 shillings per ton (4.95 cents per bushel) to 20 shil- 
lings per ton (12.38 cents per bushel). The only inspection of export 
corn is that made in a private way by the companies doing a large 
business. In May, 1908, the prices of corn varied from 61 to 67 cents 
per bushel for white and 55 to 61 for yellow. 



Brazil* 

Brazil is a republic of South America. The southeastern portion 
is mountainous. The central northeastern and western parts are oc- 
cupied by a great plateau with the low plains of the Amazon to the 
north and those of Paraguay to the west. This country is awakening 
to the need of diversified agriculture, and it is certain that more corn 
will be grown there in the future. In many parts of Brazil two crops 

*Consul General, Rio de Janeiro. 



PRINCIPAL CORN GROWING COUNTRIES OTHER THAN U. S. 1 1 

can be grown and high yields are easily obtained. The average yield 
of corn grown per acre is larger than that of the United States. The 
average yield of corn grown per acre is larger than that of the United 
States. The average price is about 75 cents per bushel. The flint type 
is almost universally grown. The temperature and rainfall is quite 
variable and cultivation pratices rather crude. There are several ex- 
perimental farms in operation, however, and it is certain that corn 
growing will receive a stimulating impetus in the future. 

Austria-H ungary 

The total production of corn in Austria-Hungary in 1890 exceeded 
that of 1880 by 40 per cent. Hungary produces the greater part of the 
total crop, the soil in the western part of this latter country being ex- 
ceedingly fertile. The climate is typically continental ; cold in winter 
and hot in summer. The mean annual temperature at Budapest varies 
from 0.7 degrees C. in January to 20.4 degrees C. in July. In 1 1 ungary 
75.1 per cent of the population is engaged in agriculture, while in 
Austria the percentage is 55. In Austria proper 34.45 per cent of the 
land is arable. 




Pod Corn 



CHAPTER ILL 

CLASSIFICATION AND BOTANICAL 
CHARACTERISTICS 

CLASSIFICATION 

Tlic Polymorphic species (Zea mays) is divided into six distinct 
sub-groups by Dr. E. L. Sturtevant.* His classification is based upon 
an extended examination of almost 800 varieties. This grouping is 
founded on the internal structure of the kernels of the cultivated 
varieties and the presence ef a husk on each kernel in the so-called 
aboriginal form. 

The following species-groups are established: 

L ZEA TUNICATA.— The Pod Corn. This is also known as 
primitive corn. In this group each kernel is enclosed in a pod or husk, 
and the ear thus formed is also enclosed in husks. The seed is sup- 
plied by our seedsmen for growing as a curiosity. Instances are on 
record where seemingly the dent corn has reverted to this type. The 
kernel itself is rather hard and flinty. 

II. ZEA EVERT A.— The Pop Corns. This species-group is 
characterized by the excessive proportion of the corneous endosperm 
and the small size of the germs, kernels and ears. The best varieties 
have a corneous endosperm throughout. This gives the property of 

Pop Corn popping, which is the complete eversion or turning inside out of the 
kernel, through the explosion of the contained moisture on the appli- 
cation of heat. This type is very hardy and the embryo has wonder- 
ful germinative vitality. Its culture is an important industry in cer- 
tain districts near the larger cities. 

III. ZEA INDURATA.— The Flint Corns. A species-group 
readily recognized by the occurrence of a starchy endosperm enclosed 
in a corneous endosperm, as shown in a split seed. This corneous 

Flint Corn endospcrm varies in thickness with varieties. It is grown farther 
north than any of the other types. The kernel is therefore usually 

*BiUletin No. 57 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CORN 43 

very shallow, containing very little white starch and maturing in a 
short time. There are generally eight rows to the cob, though some 
varieties have twelve. The stover is more valuable than that of dent 
corn because it lacks woodiness. 

IV. ZEA INDENTATA.— The Dent Corns. A species-group 
recognized by the presence of corneous endosperm at the sides of the 
kernel, the starchy endosperm reaching to the summit. By the drying 
and shrinkage of the starchy matter, the summit of the kernel is 
drawn in, or together, and indented in various forms. The ears are 
much larger and have more rows than flint corn. The kernels are 
deeper, less glassy, with sharper corners, and more angular in shape. 
The dent corn is the corn of the corn belt,- and the corn of commerce. 

V. ZEA AMYLACEA.— The Soft Corns. This species-group is 
at once recognized by the -absence of corneous endosperm. Through 
the uniformity of the shrinkage in ripening there is usually no inden- 
tation, although this occasionally occurs. In the southern regions this 
corn is grown almost exclusively. This is the mummy corn of Chile 
and Peru. 

VI. ZEA SACCHARATA.— The Sweet Corns. A well defined 
species-group characterized by the translucent, horny appearance of 
the kernels and their more crinkled, wrinkled, or shriveled condition. 
The first sweet corn cultivated in America was secured from the Sus- 
quehanna Indians in 1779, by Captain Richard Begnall, who accom- 
panied General Sullivan on his trip to subdue the Six Nations. 

VII. ZEA AMYLEA SACCHARATA.— The Starchy Sweet 
Corns. The upper half of kernel is horny and transparent, the lower 
part, starchy. It is of little importance. 

Zca caiiina (Watson) sometimes known as Maic de Coyoto, or a 
wild corn, is a hybrid form from fourth or fifth generation of a cross 
between Teosinte and Black Mexican Corn. 

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CORN 

Indian Corn is an annual, herbaceous plant, belonging to the fam- 
ily of grasses (Gramiiicoc). The botanical name (Zea mays) is 
derived from the Greek v^ord, "Zao," meaning "to live," while "mays" 
is believed to come from the Livonic word "Mayse," meaning "bread, 
staff of life." 

PLANT STRUCTURE. Many minute cells compose the body of 
a plant. These cells vary in shape and size in different parts of the 



Dent Corn 



Zea Mays 



44 



CORN. 



Protoplasm 

and 

its 

parts 



Cellulose 



same plant and in different plants. The cell is filled with a living 
material called protoplasm. The greater part of protoplasm is cyto- 
plasm, a colorless material of granular character. In addition to the 
cytoplasm, the nucleus, or governing portion of the protoplasm, is 
generally located in the center of the cell. Nucleoplasm forms the 
major part of the nucleus, although the vital principle contained 
therein is the chromatin. Cells multiply, that is, development takes 
place at the growing point, by the process of cell division. A corre- 
sponding segmentation of the nucleus takes place simultaneously, 
whereby the new cell has all the essential cell elements. Cellulose, a 
firmer material, constitutes the cell wall, which is usually very thin. 



NATURE OF ROOT GROWTH. Root growth takes place at a 
point just back of the cap, known as the growing point. The tin. 
^cap which is pushed through the soil by the constant addition of cells at 
the growing point, is made up of harder sells and acts as a protection 
to that portion. As it wears away, new cells are supplied from behind 
by the growing point. 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) 



Fig. 6. 



THE FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM OF CORN. 
Many of the finer cross roots were lost in removing the plant from the soil. 



BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION I5 

Corn, which is merely a giant form of grass, has a fine, fibrous 
root system, like all members of the grass family. The root system 
is not characterized by any tap root such as is found in clover. 

In the early stages the roots develop laterally. The North Dakota 
Experiment Station found that *30 days after planting the roots from 
adjacent stalks had met and interlaced, and that most of the roots 
were within the first eight inches of the surface of the soil and that Root 
few had penetrated to a depth of 12 inches. Six inches from the hill thrrty^"^"* 
the main roots laid 23/2 inches below the surface, while midway be- after 
tween the hills, they were 4^ inches below the surface. The latter ^*°*"'^ 
point should be especially noted, for it is a strong argument in favor 
of shallow cultivation. 

An examination 55 days after planting, at the last cultivation, 
when the plants were 43^2 feet high, showed that the main roots had 
reached a depth of 2^4 feet. Many of the lateral roots extended the 
entire distance from hill to hill (three feet eight inches), inclining pifty-flve 
most of the way, and when about 3 to y/z feet from the hill dropping i^^^ 
almost vertically downward. The lateral and vertical roots gave p'*°^'°^ 
off numerous branches which rebranched again and again, filling the 
soil to a depth of two feet with a perfect network of roots. The lateral 
roots sent up numerous vertical feeders to within two inches of the 
surface. 

At 90 days from planting, or soon after the frost had killed the 
corn, another sample showed that the ground to a depth of 33^ feet ^avs^ 
was fully occupied by roots. The conclusions were that after corn is planting 
ten inches high, it should not be cultivated deep because of injury to 
surface roots. 

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOTS. The roots which 
arise from the base of the stalk are called "primary" roots. Often in 
this same class are also placed those springing from the first two or 
three nodes. The "secondary" root system appears in checked corn 
during the time of "laying by;" that is, when the winds of summer 
begin to "jostle" the corn plants. In trying to support themselves 
these roots are sent out. They may appear on nodes as high up as Brace 
the seventh, and in listed corn, even higher. These roots do not usu- are'® 
ally appear on more than two nodes above the ground. They act both 'lec^sary 
as guys and stays. Before entering the soil a small enlargement 
forms at the end. On entering a moist soil this thickened portion 
becomes mucilaginous and may be an aid in holding the root in the 
soil until it forms a little bunch of roots of its own. The brace roots 
aid in the support of the plant and absorb small quantities of plant 

*Bulletin 43, N. D. Experiment Station. 



4G CORN. 



food. From 22 to 28 brace roots usually appear at each node. If the 
weather is stormy and the corn has a tendency to blow over, these 
brace roots grow very rapidly. 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) 

Fig. 7. 

Stalk showing brace roots at nodes above the ground. 
Note also the rudimentary roots just appearing at 
the two upper nodes. 

STRUCTURE. The outermost layer of a young root is a single 
cylinder of cells termed the "piliferous layer." This layer, when near 
Formation the ncwly formed tip of the root, is the absorbing surface for soil 
root hairs Hioisture and plant food. The root hairs are merely projecting por- 
tions of the individual cells of this layer. The fact that this layer is 
absorptive differentiates it from the epidermis of the stem. 

Immediately beneath the piliferous layer is the "cortex" which is 
thick and consists chiefly of parenchymatous or thin-walled cells. The 



ROOT STRUCTURE 




(Courtesy Coulter; 

Fig. 8. 
A longitudinal section through the root 
tip of shepherd's purse, showing the 
central vascular a"xis (p), surrounded 
by the cortex (p), outside of the cor- 
tex the epidermis (e) which disap- 
pears in the older parts of the root, 
and the prominent root-cap (c). 



office of these cells is merely to give the root strength and form, while 
through them and between them the moisture absorbed by the outer 
layer reaches the central cylinder within. 

The innermost layer of cells of 
the cortex forms a very complete 
and very rigid cylinder, enclosing 
the central cylinder. This cndo- cyUnder 
dermis consists of regularly formed, 
closely-fitting cells which pre- 
vent the escape of plant food on its 
course upward through the central 
cylinder of older roots. In younger 
plants, however, the passage of 
moisture from the surface to the 
cylinder is not hindered. 

The pericycle, though not very 

distinct in many roots, is the outer 

cell layer of the central cylinder. 

From single cells within it, arise all 

secondary roots. By pushing their 

way outward through the cortexand surface layer, and by repeated 

cell divisions they soon elongate and become tributary feeders. This 

internal origin of the branch roots can be readily seen by peeling 

off the cortex, which lays bare the attachment. 

The central cylinder consists for the most part of tubes which are 
of use in carrying the plant food upward into the stem and leaves. 

CONDITIONS AFFECTING ROOT GROWTH. The factors 
affecting root growth are the factors which affect the yield of the crop. 

(i) In order that the younger and more tender rootlets may 
push through the soil, its texture must be quite fine. A root will 
not cross a large interspace between lumps of earth. 

(2) Com roots draw almost entirely upon the capillary water of 
the soil. In case of extreme drought they use the hydroscopic mois- 
ture. Very little, if any of the grazity water, that which is drained 
from the soil in tiling, is utilized by the plant. 

(3) Roots avoid a cold soil and if the ground is of a low tem- 
perature will feed near the surface. 

(4) The entrance of oxygen into the soil is necessary to insure 
the spread of root growth. 

(5) Roots seek and require the presence of plant food in the soil. 



4S 



CORN. 




(Courtesy Percival) 



Fig. 9. 



1. Young root of a pea. h Root-hairs of the piliferous layer; c root-cap. 
(Twice natural size.) 

2. Transverse section through a young root of a pea near h in 1. h Rooi- 
hairs; c cortex; p piliferous layer; e endodermis; n pericycle; w wood 
strand; x its protoxylem; b bast strand. (Enlarged 48 diameters.) 



Form 

of 

stem 



STALK. — Structure of Stem. The stem varies in height from i8 
inches to 24 feet, according to variety and conditions influencing 
growth, as climate and soil. It is made up of a series of sections 
known as intcrnodcs, which vary in length from a few inches at the 
base to more than a foot at the top. They are separated from each 
other by short, thick joints or nodes. The length of internodes is less 
at the base for the purpose of strengthening the stalk. Being longer 
at the upper end, the stalk has more chance to flex in the breeze with- 
out breaking. The average circumference of the nodes measured on 
ten stalks was about as follows : Second internode above root crown, 
3.7 inches; first internode below the ear, 3.3 inches; first internode 
above the ear, 2.875 inches. 

The stem of the corn plant consists structurally of 

(i) A very thin layer, the epidermis, on the outside. This con- 
sists of a one layered cylinder of cells. The surface is very smooth 
Epidermis and glossy, being impervious to moisture. The idea that a corn stalk 
"drinks in" the showers is erroneous, as shown by this impenetrable 
coat. On the other hand, this covering lessens the evaporation of 



II 



STRUCTURE OF STEM 



49 



moisture from within. Being smooth, it affords no place for the 
lodgment of smut spores. Insects find difficulty in inserting their 
sucking mouth into these parts. 

(2) The woody wall, which is really a layer consisting of a close 
union of a great number of Hhro-vascnlar bundles. In the small 

grains and grasses, this woody 




(By courtesy of Iowa State College) 

Fig. 10. 



Section of corn-stalk showing pith, 
vascular bundles, and epidermis. 



fibro- 



time from the plant food stored here 

tion, to hold in place the fibro-vascular bundles. 

(4) The fibro-vascular bundles are the circulatory ducts for the 



Woody 
wall 



wall is the only supporting 
structure in the stem. From 
each node, where a leaf grows 
out, a number of the^e bundles 
leave the wall to extend into 
the leaf to feed it. The more 
rank the growth, the greater 
is the number of these bundles 
in the wall. 

(3) The pith is composed 
of parenchyma cells and fills 
the center of a corn stem. With 
a given weight of material, a nth 
hollow column is stronger than 
a solid one in withstanding 
pressure, as heavy winds in 
summer, although when exces- 
sive weight is borne by such a 
column the sides are liable to 
collapse. To meet the former 
condition, the stems of cereals 
are hollow, while in the latter 
case the stalk of corn has a 
light filler. The cells of the 
])ith are very large and loosely 
arranged, and although they do 
not transport moisture, they do 
act as reservoirs in time of 
drought. During the final 
stages of maturity, after irost 
has killed the leaves and the 
stalk loses its color, the ker- 
nels on the ear are fed for some 
The pith has one other func- 



50 



CORN. 



Fibre- 
vascular 
bundles 



raw plant food drawn from the roots, and the distributing canals for 
the cell sap which has been manufactured therefrom in the leaves. 
These bundles are quite woody and fibrous and can be seen in an old 
corn stalk, appearing very much like threads. These tubes, of which 




<Ci)urtesy Coulter) 



Fi-r. 11. 



Fibro Vascular Bundle. Cross-section of a closed collateral bundle from the 
stem of corn, showing the xylem with annular (r), spiral (s), and pitted (g) 
vessels; the phloem containing sieve vessels (v), and separated from the 
xyleni by no intervening cambium; both xylem and phloem surrounded by a 
mass of sclereiichyma (fibers); and investing vessles and fibers the paren- 
chyma (p) of the pith-like tissue through which the bundles are distributed. — 
After Sachs. ' 



GROWTH OP STEMS 



61 



these bundles are composed, are large and numerous. This helps lo 
account for the rapidity of growth of corn under favorable conditions. 

Growth of Stems. An examination of a longitudinal section of a 

growing corn stem will show that above each node the pith and fibro- 

\ascular bundles are of a darker green color. The pith in the upper 

part of the internodcs shows a pure white color and is often rather 

Growing 

dry, while at the base of the internodes the cells are full of sap. These points 
cells, as well as the extreme tip of the stem, constitute the growing com stalk 
points of the cornstalk. The possession of 14 to 20 such points 
enables a corn stalk to lengthen rapidly during the growing season. 
As the stems come out of the ground, their upward course is like the 
unfolding of a telescope. Such rapid extension gives corn a chance 
to outdo its competitors, the weeds, in the race for supremacy in the 
field. Corn has an endogenous stem. Growth in diameter takes place 
on the inside, rather than by adding layers on the outside, as in the 
case of exoge)ious plants, such as the oak. 

LEAVES. — Arrangement. The leaves arise from the nodes and 
for sonic distance from one node, almost to the next above, surround 
the stem in the form of a sheath. The edges of this sheath meet on the 
cide opposite the blade, which spreads out from the stem above the sheath 
next node in the same manner, but exactly on the opposite side. The 
leaves are arranged alternately and arise on, and conceal, the grooved 
side of the stem. The leaf sheath is movable on the internode. This 
allows the leaf to swing back and forth upon the stem without break- 
ing loose at its base. The leaves appearing at the lower nodes are 
usually abortive, hence there is not a full leaf for each node on the 
stem. There are, however, usually 12 to 18 leaves upon a stalk, the 
nuinber varying with the variety, the season, and the soil. Corn 
which is thinly planted will have a greater number of leaves than 
that which is closely planted. 



movable 



Structure. At the point where the leaf blade spreads away from 
the leaf sheath and changes its vertical course for one more horizontal, 
there appears a hinge. At this point, the fibro-vascular bundles in the ^^^^y 
blade are closer together and a light colored triangular spot appears. oMeaf 
The blade is especially full near its base for several inches along the flexibiuty 
edge. This waviness is due to the edge growing more rapidly than 
the mid rib. This extra amount of surface allows flexibility, both in 
lateral and vertical movements. This ligule is very prominent in 
corn and its need is demonstrated especially well in the western part 
of the corn belt. 



52 



CORN. 



Midrib 



Just inside and springing from the ligule is a short, thin, yet rigid 
prolongation or fringe which clasps the internode of the stem very 
Eaingnard closclv. This is the raingiiard, which, contrary to common opinion, 
instead of catching the rainfall and collecting it inside the leaf sheath, 
transfers it to the opposite side of the stalk and allows it to drip on 
the rainguard and ligule below. This rainguard in turn does the same 
thing. The water is carried in a zigzag manner until it reaches the 
ground. The fact that, after a light shower in August, a wet spot is 
noted at the base of each hill of corn can be accounted for because of 
this process. 

The midrib and the veins, which are only larger gatherings of 
fibro-vascular bundles, serve to hold the green surface spread out to 
the sunlight. They are also circulatory ducts. The epidermis of the 
leaf is not very thick nor tough. This is shown by the tendency of 
the point of the blade to split in a heavy, whipping wind. The green, 
cellular structure between the veins of the leaf of corn is, in the plant's 
early growth, very turgid and of a dark color. The curious openings 
on the surfaces of the leaf, known as stomata, are very active in the 
corn plant. Guarding each opening will be found two crescent-shaped 
cells known as guard cells. The stomata act as passage ways for the 
transpiration of moisture and for the inlet and outlet of carbon dioxide 
and oxygen. They cannot properly be spoken of simply as breathing 
pores. 

FIGURING THE LEAF SURFACE OF A CORN STALK. As 

the corn plant requires over 500 tons of water for the formation of one 
ton of dry matter, the leaf surface must necessarily be large to accom- 
modate this enormous transpiration. In figuring the surface area of 
a leaf, measure the width three inches from the ligule, also at a point 
six inches from the tip of the leaf. Add these two widths, divide by 
two to get the average. Multiply this average width by the length of 
the leaf from the ligule to that point, six inches from the tip. To the 
area of this rectangle, add the area of the isosceles triangle at the tip 
of the leaf, which is six inches in altitude and as wide as the leaf is 
at that point. The sum of the two areas gives the leaf surface on one 
side of a single leaf. Multiply this sum by two and the entire surface 
of leaf will be ascertained. For approximate calculations, the surface 
area of one leaf multiplied by the number of leaves on the stem will 
give the entire leaf surface of the stalk. 

An Example. Leaf 36 inches in total length, 

4 inches wide at lower measurement (3 

inches from ligule), 
3 inches wide at upper measurement (6 

inches from tip of blade), 
35^ inches average width. 
Three and one-half inches multiplied by 30 inches (36-6 inches) 
equals 105, square inches, area of rectangle. 



Five hundred 

tons water 

to one 

of dry 

matter 



DROUTH RESISTING CHARACTERS 



53 



The isosceles triangle with 3 in. base and 6 in. altitude has an area 
of 9 square inches. 105 sq. in. plus 9 sq. in. equals 114 sq. in., one 
surface. 114 sq. in, multiplied by 2 equals 228 sq. in., the area of both 
sides of the leaf. With 12 leaves on the stem, there would be a total 
of 2,736 square inches, or 19 square feet of leaf surface for that one 
stalk. 

DROUGHT RESISTING CHARACTERS. While necessary for 
the transpiration of so much moisture, the larger surface area of the 
leaves of a corn stalk, must, of course, be equipped with means of ^^^^ 
preventing undue loss. Nature is not extravagant. This is especially j^*^"""" 
true in the case of corn. As the water level slowly settles, when the weather 
summer season advances, the roots of the corn plant begin going 
down, following the strata of moisture. When the spring season has 
been very wet and the summer turns dry suddenly, causing the 
surface soil to bake and evaporation to go on very rapidly, the water 
table often sinks so quickly that the plant, which had before fed near 
the surface, cannot change its root system in time to prevent its being 
stunted from want of moisture. 

When the root system fails in its attempt to keep in contact with 
the water table, the foliage exhibits certain adaptations for reducing "CurUng* 
evaporation. The leaves of a very young corn plant are always corn 
tubular, partly because of their being wrapped about each other and 
partly because if their surface were open moisture would be lost by 
transpiration faster than it could be supplied by the small root system. 
The leaves are built up of many cells of delicate nature, hence they 
depend upon moisture for the maintenance of rigidity. As excessive 
evaporation from the surface continues and the supply from below 
slackens, the leaves fold in halves on the mid rib. The edges also curl 
in on each other. This "curling" of corn in July is a bad omen to 
corn growers in the drier districts. Through July and August, dur- 
ing the formation of the ear, is the critical period in the life of a corn 
plant. A lack of moisture at this time means curtailment of yield. 

THE FLOWER, The corn plant is mcnecious; that is, the stam- 
inate and pistillate flowers are borne on the same plant, but at differ- 
ent places. They will be spoken of here as male and female flowers, 
respectively, as they are commonly known as such, but from a strict 
botanical point of view the terms male and female are incorrect when 
so applied. The time of blossoming depends upon: 

(i) The time of planting. Early corn usually comes out in bloom 
and ripens-before the late planted corn, 

(2) Varieties, whether early or late. 



54 



CORN. 



Bracts 



(3) Seasonal influences. Often in a growing season of plenty 
rainfall, the early corn will remain green and continue growing late 
in the summer before blossoming. A sudden drouth at the time of 
rapid growth forces the date of blossoming upon the corn. 

(4) Soil conditions. A soil which is lacking in plant food and 
not retentive of moisture, dwarfs the plants and they prematurely put 
out flowers. 

MALE OR STAMINATE FLOWERS.— Tassels. The male or 
staminate flowers are found in the tassel, arranged in the form of a 
panicle, the branches of which 
are shorter nearer the base. 
There are two single flowers in 
each spikelet. Each single 
flower has its own set of inner 
bracts, and the two together 
are enclosed by thicker, darker 
green, outer bracts. Each flow- 
er has three stamens, mounted 
at first upon short, stock Ula- 
mcnts, but which as the pollen 
matures, lengthen and push the 
pollen sacks or anthers out to 
be caughr m the breezes. The 
anthers are two-celled and in- 
stead of opening at the tip end. 
split just above and along one 
side. This allows the pollen 
grain to be wafted to greater 
distances. At the base of each 
set of these filaments, there is 
PoUen present a greenish, grandular, 
turgid body, called the lodicuie, 
which swells as maturity ad- 
vances, thus spreading open the 
bracts to allow the stamens to 
be pushed out. Each pollen 
gram is very small, having in 
its center a nucleus, while the 
remainder of the cell is light, 
and serves as a buoy in its 
course through the air. It has been estimated that each anther or 
pollen sac produces about 2,700 pollen grains. A single tassel con- 




(By courtesy of Iowa State College) 
Fig. 13. 

Section of branch of tassel showing pollen 
sacs suspended on the elongated fila- 
ments. Note the openings of the cells 
of the pollen sacs (anthers). 



LEAF SURFACE. 



55 




tains 7,500 pollen sacks, making a total of 30,250,000 pollen grains per 
plant in the corn field. This excess of pollen is necessary because of 

the loss of so many grains which are 
lodged about the stalk and which fall to 
the ground. If every grain were to reach 
a silk there would be 30,250 grains for 
each ovary, if each stalk produced but 
one ear, or 15,125 in case of two ears, 
counting 1,000 ovaries per ear. 

FEMALE OR PISTILLATE FLOW- 
ERS. The female flowers are borne on a 
hardened spike (cob), which is produced 
on a branch or shank coming from a node 
on the main stem. At first, the leaf sheath 
covers and protects this outgrowth, but 
it soon appears above the sheath and the 
corn is said to be "shooting." In a short 
time, the husks, which are modified leaves, 
open at the tip end and silks appear. The 
outer end of each silk, a portion of the 
stigma, is often split, and is covered with 
very short hanrs which, together with a 
sticky or mucilaginous secretion present, 
aids in collecting pollen grains. 

The remainder of the silk to its attach- 
ment is the style, which is slightly angu- 
lar and i stubular. The style is attache! 
to the summit of the oi-ary (kernel), which is held in two sets of 
bracts and encloses within its walls a single oi'uJc. Tliere is but one 
silk for each ovarv and there are 800 or more ovaries on the spike. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EAR. Corn is a cross-pollinated 
plant. Nature, in her effort to accomplish this, sends out the tassel 
as many as seven days before the silks appear on the shoot below. This 
character is taken advantage of in mating ears in the breeding block. 
When a pollen grain falls upon the stigma of a silk, the moisture theie 
present, and the heat of the summer causes it to germinate. 
The external evidence of germination of a pollen grain is the produc- 
tion of a long pollen tube which penetrates the stigmatic surface and 
passes down through the hollow style to the tip of the ovule within 
the kernel. The internal evidence of germination consists in several 
divisions of the pollen grain nucleus. Two of the resultant nuclei pass 
down through the pollen tube, out through its ruptured tip and one 



(Courtesy Sargent) 

Fig. 14. 

spikclet from the tassel cut 
lengthwise to show its two flow- 
ers, the one on the right fully 
open, the other not yet mature. 
Sk, sfalklet; C, C, outer bracts; 
D, K, inner bracts of the open 
flower; G, lodicules, which by 
swelling spread the bracts 
apart; F', F'.', filaments cut 
across; F, filament bearing ripe 
anther (RA) shedding pollen 
(P/ : YA, young anthers, the 
left hand one cut to show the 
pollen. Enlarged. (Original.) 



Stigma 



Style 
Ovary 
Oviile 



Corn is 
cross- 
pollinated 



56 



CORN 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) Fig. 15a. 

EAR IN SILK. 
(Entire Tassel.) 



FERTILIZATION 




(Courtesy Sargent) 

Fig. 15b. 

Maiie. 1. A young ear cut through the 
middle lengthwise. Sk, Sk, the main 
stalk; Sk, the branch silk which bears 

the ear- Sh, sheath of the leaf enfolding 
the whole ear; RG, rain guard; B, blade 
of the same leaf; H, husks; Sg, stigmas 
("Silk") protruding beyond the jusks. 

II. A single spikelet of the ear. showing 
the bracts (C, C, D, E, D', E') and the 
ovary (O) and the lower part of the 
style (Sy) of the single pistil. Enlarged. 

III. Upper part of stigma, showing the 
delicate hairs that cover it. Enlarged. 
(Original.) 



unites with the egg cell, which 
has been formed within the 
ovule. This constitutes the act 
of fertilization. But one grain 
is required for the fertilization 
of each ovule. The fertilized 
ovule immediately begins to 
grow and together with the 
surrounding ovary, forms the 
kernel of corn. The silks at 
the butt of the ear are the first 
to appear and the first, as a 
rule, to be pollinated. The mid- 
dle kernels are next. The com- 
plete fertilization of the tip 
kernels of the ear depends 
upon the continuance of good 
weather and the late tasseling 
of other nearby stalks in the 

,- , , T,r 11 Conditions 

same field. Warm, balmy for 
weather, with a slight breeze, wen * '°^ 
is ideal for the transfer of 
corn pollen. Dashing rains at 
this season of tne year wash 
the pollen from the tassel, 
and a moist atmosphere pre- 
vents the grains from floating 
about. 

The developing kernel is fed 
from within the cob by a single 
fibro-vascular bundle which ex- 
tends directly to the stalk. 
This duct, in its course through 
the cob, passes between the 
soft white cellular pith and the 
woody portion and enters a 
passage way through this 
woody portion to the base of 
the kernels. The bracts about 
the base of the ovary become 
the colored chaflf of the ma- 
tured cob. 



58 



CORN. 



Each ear is borne upon a shank which at first holds the shoot 
upright along the side of the stalk, but, which, as a rule, later allows 
the matured ear to droop and even to hang, because of increased 
weight of the ear and lack of rigidity in the shank itself. The shank 




(By Courtesy of Iowa State College) 

Fig. 16. 

EAR IN NATURAL POSITION ON STALK. 

Note That Its Shank Lies in the Groove. The Outer 

Husks are Shorter Than the Inner Ones. 



fits in the groove of the internode and appears jointed just as does the 
stalk itself. As many as ten or more internodes are present. At each 
node a husk is produced, those from the lower nodes overlapping 
those above. The number of husks and their coarseness depends 
upon the season, the soil and the variety. The place of appearance of 



DEVELOPiMENT OF KERNEL 



59 



this shank varies. In rank growing corn it will be higher than on 
plants produced on poor soil. In a wet season, when the fibro-vascular 
bundles are constantly supplying plant food from below, "shoots," 
so-called, may appear at seven or more nodes, beginning quite near 
the ground. The position of the shoot which finally matures is an 
inherited character and it has been shown that it may be largely con- 
trolled by selection. As a rule, it develops at a point between four 
and six feet from the base of the stalk. Some varieties produce two 
or more ears on each stalk. In favorable years, two ears per stalk are 
not uncommon in many fields. 

THE KERNEL, DEVELOPMENT OF. In the study of the 
development of the kernel, the first period of growth includes what 
is commonly referred to as the milk stage. Kernels in the milk are 
very sweet, due to the presence of sugar which has not yet been 
transformed into storage starch. The protein, ash, and oil are depos- 
ited in the germ (embryo jilant) before the endospcmi or body of the 
kernel is filled out. Later, the cellular structure (endosperm) sur- 
rounding the germ is packed full of starch. Much of this material has 
been held in readiness in the stalk and is now deposited in the grain. 
A seed such as corn in which the reserve food is stored outside of the 
embryo is said to be endospcrmotis; one in wliich the food is stored 
entirely within tlie embryo is said to be excndospcrmons. The stor- 
age of all this readily available food material takes place during the 
development of the seed. Man has taken advantage of these facts 
and developed in certain grains an increased storage of one or all 
these constituents. The matured grain-fruit (kernel) is called car\'- 
opsis. It is the ripened ovule surrounded by the ovary walls. 

Immediately covering the food supply of the seed and enveloping 
the entire caryopsis, is a thin membranous layer called the tegmcn 
(seed coat), overlain by a tough coat or testa (ovary wall). The 
integument formed by the union of these two constituents is the bran 
of wheat and the hull of corn. It may be removed after soaking the 
kernel in warm water for about twenty minutes. 

Germination is the resumption of growth of the young plant which 
lies within the seed. This young plant is the embryo or germ.* It is 
made up, first, of a large shield-shaped portion (scutellum) which 
lies next the endosperm and which does not appear above ground, and 
second, a portion which develops into the roots, stem, and leaves of the 

*Thi> t<;rin embryo is sometimes loosely applied to that portion of the germ which 
produces the roots, stem and leaves. This is incorrect, the terms germs and em- 
bryo ar-3 strictly synonymous. 



Protein 

and 

oil 

deposited 

first 



Starch 

deposited 

later 



Covering 
and 

forma tioa 
of 
caryopsis 



Radicle 



Plumule 



ledonous 



GO CORN. 

corn plant. The portion which is to produce the stem and leaves lies 
toward the crown of the kernel and is called the plumule. The portion 
which is the first root lies toward the tip of the kernel, and is called 
the radicle. 

At the time of germination the radicle becomes the root sprout. It 
appears enveloped for a time in a sheath, the "coleorhiza." This root 
sprout is usually temporary. The permanent roots spring from the 
first node of the stem sometimes before it has pushed its way out from 
under the hull of the kernel. 

The "stem sprout" is the awakened plumule. It is believed by 

Monocoty- some good authorities that the scutellum corresponds to the single 

ledonous ^^^^ ^^^^r ^^ cotyledon in such plants as the lily. The corn is therefore 

said to be "monocotyledonous." A representation- of the "dicotyle- 

Dicoty- dons" is the bean which has two such seed leaves. The first leaves are 

tightly rolled together, the younger ones being enclosed within the 

older. Just as soon as the stem sprout reaches the light, it turns green 

owing to the formation of chlorophyll. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In the classification of the types of 
corn the facts were drawn from Dr. Sturtevant's investigations. 

In gathering the facts for the description of the botanical character- 
istics, we drew freely from "Agricultural Botany," Percival, who pre- 
sents the details of plant structure very plainly. "Corn Plants, their 
Uses and Ways of Life," by Carpenter, was used as a guide in dis- 
cussing the peculiarities of the parts of the stalk. "Plants," a text 
book of Botany, by Coulter, and the text book of Botany by Wood, 
were also used as references. 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Flint Varieties of Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 225. 
Varieties of Corn, by Sturtevant, 

U. S. Department No. 57. 
Pop Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 202. 
A Study of Corn, 

Maine No. 139. 
Sweet Corn, 

Maryland No. 96. 
Corn, Roots of: 

Kansas No. 127. 



CHAPTER JV. 

GERMINATION AND THE GROWTH 
OF PLANTS 

GERMINATION 

Germination is the awakening of the dormant embryo. Its imme 
diate subsequent continuation is dependent upon available nutrimenv 
contained in the seed. 

THE CONDITIONS OF GERMINATION ARE 

A. VITALITY, 

B. MOISTURE. 

C. PROPER TEMPERATURE. 

D. OXYGEN. 

Take awav any one of these first four factors and life will not awake 
from its slumber. The successful storage of grains is dependent upon 
the elimination of as many of these favorable concVitions as possible. 
The exclusion of oxygen is a physical impossibility, while the regula- 
tion of temperature is limited, but by preventing the access of mois- 
ture to stored seeds, germination is prevented. 

VITALITY. The vital principle in a live seed is known only by 
its effects. The organic life evidenced by germination is a phenom- Organic 
enon due to the presence of living cells in the germ of the matured 
seed. 

Kernels which have been subjected to continued freezing or to 
excessively high temperatures have this life extinguished. Embryos 
which are not full of water are not so suddenly or injuriously affected 
|jy these extremes. The cells of a swollen plumule or radicle are de- 
stroyed when the temperature is lowered below freezing. 

By experimentation, De Candolle was able to germinate seeds of 
a few species after a storage of fifteen years. Other plants require 
immediate favorable environment or the vitality of the seeds is weak- 
ened or lost. Seeds of Mountain Potentilla were known to germinate 
at Meriden, New Hampshire, when 60 years old. 



Old 
corn 



62 



CORN. 



Absorption 

of 

moisture 



"Well matured corn two years old is very slightly weakened if kept 
in cool dry storage. Corn four years old shows very weak germina- 
tion, much of it failing to grow at all."* 

MOISTURE. A dry seed is usually hardy. It withstands the 
extremes of heat and cold. The structure of a matured corn kernel is 
conducive to the absorption of water, the first process in the awaken- 
ing of the embryo. Water has four distinct functions in germination. 

(i) It softens the covering of the seed. It penetrates the minute 
cells of the seed coat, enters the larger cells within, and by swelling 
them causes the entire seed to increase in size and ruptures the 
softened covering. 

Kernels of corn placed in water at a temperature of 70 degrees 
Fahrenheit will absorb 15 per cent of their original weight in 52 
hours. The rapidity of absorption depends upon the maturity of the 
corn and temperature of water. Kernels with a large amount of flinty 
starch and covered with a thick coating of horny gluten, which acts 
as a sealing wax, require considerable time and a higher temperature 
to induce penetration of moisture. Starchy kernels of an open cellular 
structure admit the soil moisture very readily. This accounts for the 
rotting of immature kernels when placed in the ground early in the 
spring, at which time it is cold and wet. 

(2) It dissolves the plant food. The parent bequeaths to the 
ripened ovule a store of starch, fat, sugar, and protein before the 
seed is cast off. Of these substances the sugar and allied compounds 
are soluble in water; before the remainder can be utilized they must 
be digested or rendered soluble. This digestion takes place, how- 
ever, only in the presence of water. This fact is well illustrated by 
the rapid germination of immature kernels of corn. The sugar which 
would later have been changed to starch and stored in the kernel, is 
readily soluble in the water which first enters. Tests have shown 
that corn which was picked early, germinated in a shorter time than 
that gathered in the husking season. However, it must be borne in 
mind that there is a smaller reserve of plant food in such a kernel to 
continue the germination. Therefore, the soil must be warm and 
rich in order that the young rootlets may begin immediately to draw 
from outside sources. 

(3) It carries the plant food to the growing embryo. A con- 
Water tinual supply of available nutriment is demanded by the young plant, 
jarrier The presence of water insures its transportation to every growing 

point. The scutellum acts as an absorbing organ for the plant food 

*Classbo()k of Botany, wood. 



Immature 
kernels 

germinate 
rapidly 



GERMINATION. 63 

Stored in the endosperm. The food so absorbed, together with that 
stored in the scutellum, passes over a sort of bridge to the sprouting 
plumule and radicle. 

(4) It aids in the chemical and biolog-ical changes. The two 
classes of food materials present in the largest amounts in the mature 
seeds are the albuminoids and carbohydrates. The albuminoids in 
cereals appear in aleurone grains. Starch represents the larger part 
of the carbohydrates. The aleurone cells are thought to secrete 
diastatic ferments. These ferments or "enzymes" begin immediately Enzymes 
to corrode the starch cells lying beneath. The epithelium of the scut- their 
ellum has similar secretive cells which become active very early. The 
resultant product after the diastatic action on the starch is an invert 
sugar which is readily soluble in water and is quickly absorbed by the 
growing plant. Some soluble cane sugar enters the embryo as food 
also. 

In the spoiling of stored grain the same process occurs. Bacteria, 
yeasts, and moulds, which are universally present, change the sugars 
to alcohol and acids, making the grain sour. In the case of the ger- 0?°'*"^ 
minating plant in the field, the sugar is used before the latter steps |raiu 
have time to take place. 

PROPER TEMPERATURE. Many experiments have been made 
with the seeds of cereals and grasses to determine the efTcct of heat 
upon germination. The highest temperature at which a certain kind 
of seed will germinate is termed the "maximum." The "minimum" 
temperature refers to the lowest point at which the seed will ger- 
minate. The most favorable temperature — the degree of heat which 
produces the most rapid substantial growth — is the "optimum" tem- 
perature. 

The following are the maximum, optimum, and minimum temper- 
atures as given by Sachs for some of our most common farm seeds: 

Minimum. Optimum. Maximum. 

Wheat 41 84 104 

Barley 41 84 104 

Maize 48 93 115 

Professor Gerald McCarthy, of the North Carolina Experiment 
Station, gives : 

Minimum. Optimum. Maximum. 

Oats 55 70 90 

T^ye 55 75 90 



64 



CORN. 



Optimum 

temperature 

91 to 93 



Oxidatiou 



Air 



the 
soil 



The Department of Agriculture in seed investigations has tried to 
imitate nature in the germination of seeds. A temperature of 64 
degrees to 68 degrees F. is maintained, but during six hours out of 
each twenty-four, the temperature is raised to 86 degrees F. *Pam- 
mel gives the minimum degree for the germination of corn as 49.9 
degrees F., the optimum 91.4 degrees F., and the maximum as 134.8 
degrees F. The lowest temperature at which maize will germinate, 
according to Sturtevant, is 43.7 degrees F. for all varieties. Corn 
seems to do much better under a constant rather than a changing 
temperature, which is not the case with more northern native plants. 

Some heat is generated in the process of germination, but where 
the seeds are planted in hills by themselves this radiates so rapidly 
as to be unnoticeable. Low temperature at the time of germination 
retards growth. Cold, wet, mucky soil which excludes the warmer 
surface air, produces a weak plant and feeble advancement. Seed 
beds in the best tilth are conducive to increased activity of the roots 
and a higher coloring of the stem sprout, showing greater strength and 
vigor. 

OXYGEN. Oxygen is present in the seed, both in a free and a 
combined state, but this supply is insufficient for germination. Ger- 
mination will not take place in water which has been boiled to drive 
off oxygen. The inhalation of this vital element is followed by the 
oxidation of the constituents stored in the seed and a consequent evo- 
lution of energy. With the intaking of oxygen, there is a comparable 
outgoing of carbon dioxide gas. This process, which is slow and 
imperceptible, except by direct and careful experimentation, is called 
respiration. 

The principle upon which the tilling of the soil lies, is in the assist- 
ance of nature. A soil impenetrable to the air, resists the processes 
which bring about rapid and substantial growth. It is not alone to 
eliminate weeds that the seed bed is prepared so carefully. The more 
delicate operations of vegetation are facilitated. 

The unhealthy appearance of corn on poorly drained soil is usually 
considered to be due to too much water, when it is really the lack of 
oxygen. When corn, which has been planted very deeply, is slow in 
germinating in the spring, especially when continual rains come on, it 
is due largely to a reduction of temperature and an exclusion of 
oxygen. 

TIME REQUIRED FOR GERMINATION. The time required 
for germination depends upon the presence of the conditions just men- 

*Grasses of Iowa. Vol. 1, Page 91. 



GERMINATION. 65 

tioned. In germination box tests in the green house, at a temperature 
of 80 degrees F., corn has sprouted distinctly in four days. 

Early planted corn on ground which has been well prepared, in ge/minates 
order to admit the surface air, will appear in 10 to 12 days or sooner. 
Listed corn on low ground sometimes requires two weeks or more 
before it can be seen in the furrow. 



THE GROWTH OF PLANTS 

The growth of plants is a natural process. It is a cellular develop- 
ment which usually results in increase of volume and weight. This 
activity is the expression of life. During the early period of existence 
of a plant, this development takes place in all the parts at the same 
time. Later, centers of growth are formed, usually near the tips of 
roots, stalks, and branches. In cereals and grasses, growth takes 
place at the base of each internode and also at the tip of the stem. 

THE ESSENTIALS FOR THE GROWTH OF GREEN 
PLANTS ARE: 

1. Constitution. 

2. Water. 

A. The absorption of water. 

B. Its uses. 

(i) An essential constituent of the plant. 

(2) Regulates temperature of plant. 

(3) Maintains turgidity. 

(4) Aids in the physical changes in plant food. 

(5) Enters into the chemical processes within the 

plant. 

(6) Transports plant food. 

3. Proper Temperature. 

4. Light. 

5. Plant Food. 

A. From the air. 

(1) Oxygen. 

(2) Nitrogen. 

(3) Carbon. 

B. From the soil. 

(i) Carbon. 

(2) Nitrogen. 

(3) Phosphorus. 

(4) Potassium. 

(5) Calcium. 

(6) Others. 



66 CORN. 

CONSTITUTION. This term is often confused with vitality. A 
plant or animal may have vitality, that is, there may be life present,, 
but it may lack strength and vigor. Many corn plants that come 
through the ground in the spring never attain any size. 

In-breeding in corn tends, as in live stock, to weaken the constitu- 
tion of the plants. The blades become narrow and of a light green 
iead"to°a color, the root system shallower and the stalk itself more slender. The 

ISiCk of 

constitution weakness is often inherited, although it may result from improper 
care of the seed. The offspring of an ear of corn or spike of wheat 
may, from germination to maturity, show certain characters of 
strength which stand out distinctly. The breeder takes advantage of 
this fact, especially in the production of plants of economic impor- 
tance. New varieties are evolved in this manner. The importance 
of knowing the ancestry of one of these plants with marked constitu- 
tion cannot be overestimated. The environment has much to do with 
the highest development of virile characters. 

WATER. The presence of water in a plant is necessary for tke 
activity of its cells. The protoplasm, which is the most important 
part of the cell, is a more or less slimy or jelly-like substance contam- 
ing a considerable proportion of water. The peculiar phenomenon 
which is called "life," is associated with this watery substance. The 
amount present is influenced by the kind of plant and the environ- 
ment. Fresh red clover hay contains 70 per cent of water; green tim- 
othy hay, 62 per cent ; mangel beet roots, 91 per cent ; potatoes, 79 
per cent; corn silage, 79 per cent; corn from the crib, 11 per cent. 

THE ABSORPTION OF WATER. The adequate absorption of 
water goes on only when the following conditions are present : 

(i) A degree of temperature suitable to the nature of the plant. 
The oat plant will absorb moisture from a much colder soil than will 
the corn plant. The millets require an even higher temperature. A 
corn plant is slow to use moisture early in the spring, although 
requiring a great deal for the most rapid growth during the summer 
months. Well water poured into pots of tropical plants in a green- 
house often checks their growth. 

(2) A supply of fresh air. Imperfect respiration occurs in the 
roots of plants which are growing in soil which is so full of moisture 
as to exclude oxygen. Undrained portions of corn fields, where the. 
water stands on the surface or very near it. always grow weakly 
stalks. Even in July, when this water is warmed, the plant cannot 
use it because of the exclusion of air. 



PLANT GROWTH. 67 

(3) The condition of the water. Plants differ in their demands 
for water. Plants with a very fine, fibrous root system, draw almost 
entirely upon the slij^ht films of moisture surrounding each soil par- 
ticle. Plants with few roots require that the moisture be present more 
abundantly. Corn seems to take a place rather between these ex- 
tremes. The root system is not fine enough to absorb moisture from 
a dry soil, and yet the plant will not thrive in a saturated stratum. 

In Plant Growth. Water has six distinct functions. 

(i) Water is an essential constituent of the plant. 

The most abundant constituent of growing farm crops is water. 
In chemical combination with carbon, it enters into almost every com- 
pound stored or used by the plant. 

(2) Water regulates the temperature of the plant. 

When there is danger of excessive heat injuring the plant, the 
rapid evaporation of water from the leaves reduces the temperature. 
This is proved in the corn field in July. The temperature may rise . 
very rapidly to extreme heat, but the moisture which is taken up by 
the roots is continually evaporating from the leaves; this keeps the 
whole plant cool. If the moisture supply be deficient, evaporation is 
diminished and the temperature of the plant rises. 

(3) Water maintains turgidity. 

A cell which has absorbed water until it is exerting considerable 
stretching force upon the cell walls is said to be turgid. The moisture 
necessary to maintain the turgidity of the plant is obtained from the 
soil by the root hairs. These hairs draw upon the capillary and Transpiration 
"hydroscopic" water within their reach. The root system receives this 
moisture and passes it from cell to cell into the tubes of the central 
cylinder. 

The moisture continues its upward course as sap. Just why sap 
rises has never been entirely satisfactorily explained. It is probably 
due to a combination of physical phenomena ; among them root f>rcs- pressure 
sure, capillarity, the "pumping" action of certain cells of the stem and 
the higher concentration of the cell sap where transpiration is rapid. 
The passage of moisture from these tubes to the cells is affected by 
osmosis. This is the diffusion of liquids through a membrane in which ^„ „ . 

1 ^ Osmosis 

no openings are visible. 

\'apor is traiisf'ircd, or evaporateil through minute openings on the 
surfaces of the leaves of a plant. These pores or stomata are sur- 
rounded by guard cells which open or close according to the amount 
of water stored in the plant. They help to regulate the degree of 
turgidity of the entire plant. When every cell is full of water these 



68 



CORN. 



guard cells dilate the stomata and evaporation is increased. In con- 
trast, if the roots fail to furnish a sufficient supply of moisture, the 
wilting of the leaves relaxes the guard cells and the opening of the 
stoma closes and transpiration is diminished. The curling of corn 
Turgidity leaves in July indicates that the roots are securing insufficient mois- 
ture. When the atmosphere is clear, dry and hot, and the wind is 
blowing briskly, transpiration is increased even though the stomata 
are practically closed. Coolness and dampness of the air tends to 
reduce the passage of moisture from the stomata. 

*The following was found to be true regarding the amount in tons 
of water per ton of dry matter lost by transpiration through the plant 
and evaporation of the soil : 

Dent corn used 309.8 tons of water per ton of dry matter. 



Flint corn * 


' 239.9 " " 




Red clover ' 


' 452.8 " " 




Barley ' 


' 392.9 " " 




Oats 


' 522.4 " " 




Field peas ' 


' 477-4 " " 




Potatoes * 


' 422.7 " " 





(4) Aids in the physical change of plant food. 

The nitrates, the form in which all nitrogen enters the plant, are 
soluble in water. This compound is drawn in with the soil moisture 
by the root hairs. Other soil constituents are also soluble in water. 
"The weight of evidence supports the conclusion that water is capable 
of dissolving from the soil all the substances that it contains which 
serve as the food of plants."** A few analists assert that phosphoric 
acid is not soluble in water alone. Yet experiments have proved its 
presence in water solutions of ten days standing. It must be kept in 
mind, however, that only weak solutions of plant food are readily 
absorbed and assimilated. Care should be taken then that manure 
containing a large amount of available and soluble elements is not 
applied heavily to the corn crop. In case of excess, the plant is 
injured. The presence of carbon dioxide in water renders it more 
effective in dissolving the food materials in the soil. 

(5) Water enters into the chemical processes within the plant. 
In all probability, carbonic acid and water are decomposed at the 

same time by the action of the sun's rays through the chlorophyll, in 
the leaves of the plant.*** "It is probable that formaldehyde is first 

*"The Soil," King, Page 155. 

**Johnson's "How Plants Feed," Paare 31(5. 

'' **\Varrins:ton's ''Chemistry of the Farm," Page 6. 



Chemical 
processes 



PROPER TEMPERATURE. 69 

produced according to the following equation. CO2 plus H2O equals 
CH2O plus O2. Cane sugar (C12H22O11) and starch (C6H10O5) 
are among the earliest products. These are converted respectively 
into glucose (C6H12O6) and maltose (C12H22O11) for the nourish- 
ment of distant parts of the plant, to which they are conveyed by the 
movement of the sap. In parts where growth is taking place and new 
cells are being formed, the sugar of the sap is converted into 'cellu- 
lose.' the substance which forms the cell walls, and of which the skele- 
ton of the plant primarily consists." - ' 

The fatty matter of the plant is thought to come from the carbo- 
hydrates. Albuminoids are probably formed from the carbohydrates 
and the nitrates and then changed to protcids. 

(6) Transports plant food. 

The activity of water in plant growth is incessant and vital. The 
growing regions depend upon this carrier of plant food in physical 
solution for their maintenance and continued development. This is 
a very important function of water in plant life. Water acts as a 
carrier of waste materials. 

PROPER TEMPERATURE. The average temperature of the 
native habitat of a plant is an important factor in determining it"* 
maximum growth. Yet adaptability to environment has enabled 
man}' plants to move far away from their original abode. Corn now 

Hot wftt 

grows north of the Minnesota-Canadian line. South Dakota is yearly Juiy 
increasing its production of this cereal. The optimum temperature 
for the development for different plants varies greatly. A cool month 
of May is detrimental to growth of corn, but small grain thrives lux- 
uriantly. A hot, wet July is ideal for corn, but means destruction to 
spring wheat. 

The following table shows the growth of 25 stalks of corn from 
June 21 until August 20, 1907. The measurements were in most 
cases taken every three days. The highest point of the stalk was used 
as the basis. When the corn was small the highest point was in the 
crotch where the upper leaves spread away from the central stem. 



best for corn 



70 



CORN. 



RATE OF GROWTH OF CORN PLANT 



NO. HILLS 


June 
2 1st 


June 
iith 

5.0 
4.0 
4.5 
3.5 
3.5 
4.2 
4.5 
5.5 
5.0 
6.5 
6.0 
5.5 
5.0 
7.0 
8.5 
8.0 
5.5 
5.5 
5.5 
6.0 
7.0 
6.0 
5.5 
8.3 
8.0 


June 


July 
1st 


July 
4th 


July 
8th 


1 July 
1 11th 


July 
15th 


July 
18th 


1 


3.5 
3.5 
3.7 
2.5 
3.7 
4.0 
3.2 
4.0 
3.7 
4.5 
5.0 
3.0 
3.5 
6.0 
6.5 
5.5 
4.5 
5.0 
4.5 
4.2 
5.5 
5.7 
4.5 
6.2 
6.4 


7.0 
6.2 
6.0 
4.5 
5.5 
7.0 
7.5 
8.5 
7.0 
8.5 
8.5 
6.7 
7.0 
11.0 
12.0 
9.0 
9.0 
9.3 
9.5 
9.0 
8.0 
8.2 
7.5 
10.5 
10.5 


9.2 

9.0 

9.2 

8.5 

9.0 

9.5 

9.5 

10.7 

10.0 

10.5 

11.0 

8.0 

9.5 

13.5 

14.0 

12.5 

11.0 

11.0 

11.5 

11.5 

10.0 

10.5 

10.5 

14.0 

14.5 


13.5 
12.0 
14.0 
11.2 
11.5 
12.5 
12.5 
15.0 
14.5 
16.0 
20.0 
14.5 
17.0 
19.5 
20.5 
18.0 
17.0 
15.0 
16.0 
18:5 
15.5 
15.5 
15.0 
20.5 
19.5 


18.0 
16.0 
18.0 
24.0 
17.0 
16.0 
17.5 
19.0 
18.0 
19.0 
21.5 
19.0 
18.5 
23.0 
26.0 
19.0 
20.0 
20.5 
22.0 
23.0 
22.0 
20.0 
19.0 
25.5 
26.0 


24.0 
24.0 
24.0 
20.5 
20.0 
21.5 
22.5 
22.5 
21.5 
24.0 
26.0 
22.0 
25.0 
28.5 
34.0 
28.0 
27.0 
25.0 
27.0 
26.0 
26.0 
25.5 
24.5 
34.5 
35.5 


27.5 
26.0 
29.0 
27.0 
26.5 
27.5 
26.0 
30.0 
28.0 
26.5 
36.0 
27.0 
32.0 
38.0 
45.0 
39.0 
33.0 
28.5 
36.0 
40.0 
31.0 
33.0 
31.0 
43.0 
36.0 


35.0 


2 


35.0 


3 


35.5 


4 


35.5 


5 


34.0 


6 


33.5 


7 


36.0 


8 


40.0 


^ 


35.0 


10 


32.0 


11 


39.0 


12 


36.0 


13 


37.0 


14 


44.0 


15 


50.0 


16 


47.0 


17 


44.0 


18 


36.0 


19 


47.0 


20 


47.0 


21 


37.5 


22 


42.0 


23 


37.0 


24 


49.5 


25 


51.0 


Average 


4.5 


5.7 


8.1 


10.7 


15.5 


20.3 


24.8 


32.1 


39.8 






Increase 




1.2 


2.3 


2.6 


4.8 


4.8 


4.5 


7.3 


7.7 







NO. HILLS 


July 
22d 


July' 
24th 


July 

26th 


July 

30th 


Aug. 
3d 


1 Aug. 
1 6th 


1 Aug. 
1 lOth 


! Aug. 
1 13th 


Aug. 
17th 


1 Aug. 
1 20th 


1 

2 


48.0 
46.0 
48.5 
46.0 
52.0 
48.0 
49.0 
46.5 
46.0 
44.5 
54.0 
50.0 
50.0 
58.0 
62.0 
64.0 
57.5 
47.0 
61.5 
58.0 
51.5 
54.0 
48.0 
54.0 
58.0 


52.0 
49.5 
48.5 
49.0 
57.0 
52.0 
54.0 
55.5 
50.0 
50.0 
48.0 
49.0 
55.0 
62.0 
65.0 
68.0 
58.0 
56.0 
64.0 
60.0 
52.0 
57.0 
51.5 
70.0 
05.0 


64.0 
59.5 
57.5 
60.0 
62.0 
64.0 
64.0 
67.5 
62.5 
60.0 
69.0 
61.0 
60.5 
72.0 
77.0 
78.0 
65.0 
68.0 
72.0 
69.5 
64.5 
68.0 
62.0 
80.0 
79.0 


72.0 
68.0 
70.0 
68.0 
73.5 
75.5 
66.0 
80.0 
72.0 
71.0 
75.0 
77.5 
77.5 
81.0 
82.0 
91.0 
74.0 
86.5 
87.0 
77.5 
71.5 
81.0 
75.5 
95.0 
94.0 


85.0 
75.5 
83.5 
80.5 
85.5 
81.0 
79.0 
84.0 
82.0 
79.0 
89.0 
98.0 
93.0 
94.5 
93.0 
110.0 
89.0 
101.0 
106.0 
96.0 
84.0 
97.0 
88.5 
112.0 
112.0 


95.0 

76.5 

92.0 

90.0 

96.0 

95.0 

90.0 

105.0 

92.0 

86.0 

102.0 

106.5 

102.0 

104.5 

105.0 

116.5 

97.0 

103.0 

116.0 

114.0 

93.5 

107.0 

97.0 

119.5 

116.0 


104.0 
9G.0 
101.0 
111.0 
112.5 
109.0 
111.5 
113.5 
115.0 
102.0 
106.0 
109.5 
109.5 
115.0 
113.0 
119.0 
106.0 
103.5 
130.5 
116.5 
117.5 
116.5 
106.5 
127.5 
131.0 


109.0 
106.0 
101.0 
119.5 
116.0 
115.0 
118.5 
128.0 
121.0 
105.5 
110.0 
116.0 
113.5 
119.0 
113.5 
122.0 
lOG.O 
103.5 
131.0 
123.0 
123.0 
120.0 
114.5 
130.0 
130.5 


115.0 
113.5 
101.5 
125.0 
117.0 
120.0 
129.0 
133.0 
128.0 
111.0 
106.0 
124.0 
113.5 
120.5 
114.5 
120.0 
106.5 
104.0 
130.0 
127.0 
129.0 
122.0 
120.0 
130.5 
131.5 


114.0 
114.0 


3 


101.0 


4 


124.0 


5 


115.0 


6 

7 


121.5 
131.5 


8 


135.5 


9 


128.0 


10 


111.0 


11 


106.5 


12 


125.5 


13 


115.0 


14 


118.0 


15 


114.5 


16 


122.0 


17 


106.5 


18 


103.5 


19 


131.5 


20 


118.0 


21 


124.0 


22 


121.5 


23 


119.0 


24 


130.0 


25 


131.5 






Average 


52.1 


55.9 


06.7 


77.8 


91.1 


101.1 


112.0 


116.6 


119.7 


119.6 


Increase 


12.3 


3.8 


10.8 


11.1 


13.3 


10.0 


10.9 


4.6 


3.1 


.1 



PROPER TEMPERATURE. 



71 



TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION COINCIDENT WITH THE RATE OF 
GROWTH AS SHOWN IN THE FOREGOING TABLE. 



Time 



Maximum 


Minimum 


Rainfall 


82 


50 




82 


57 


.10 


85 


65 


.5 


88 


54 


.23 


74 


55 


.01 


72 


43 




75 


38 


.01 


81 


42 




85 


48 




85 


53 


.04 


82 


47 


.04 




47 


.05 




52 


Trace 




62 


Trace 


96 


64 




85 


54 


.41 


87 


56 


.04 


8G 


69 




84 


57 


1.0 


81 


57 


.28 


79 


51 


Trace 


82 


47 




84 


51 




88 


62 


Trace 


82 


57 


.76 


85 


57 


.31 


83 


49 




88 


55 


.53 


88 


55 


.02 


84 


58 


.46 


90 


65 




8G 


57 




89 


50 




8G 


59 


1.05 


90 


60 


.37 


77 


49 




76 


44 




85 


55 




82 


50 




86 


47 




84 


54 




77 


54 




73 


41 




75 


37 





June 


21 


1907 


June 


22 


1907 


June 


23, 


1907 


June 


24. 


1907 


June 


25. 


1907 


June 


2G. 


1907 


June 


27. 


1907 


June 


28, 


1907 


June 


29. 


1907 


June 


30, 


1907 


July 


1, 


1907 


July 


2. 


1907 


July 


3. 


1907 


July 


4, 


1907 


July 


5, 


1907 


July 


G, 


1907 


July 


7. 


1907 


July 


8. 


1907 


July 


9, 


1907 


July 


10. 


1907 


July 


11. 


1907 


July 


12. 


1907 


July 


13. 


1907 


July 


14. 


1907. 


July 


15. 


1907 


July 


16. 


1907 


July 


17. 


1907 


July 


18, 


1907. 


July 


19, 


1907 


July 


20. 


1907. 


July 


21, 


1907 


July 


22, 


1907. 


July 


23. 


1907. 


July 


24, 


1907. 


July 


25, 


1907. 


July 


2G, 


1907. 


July 


27, 


1907. 


July 


28, 


1907. 


July 


29, 


1907. 


July 


30 


1907. 


July 


31, 


1907. 


Aug. 


1. 


1907. 


Aug. 


9 


1907. 


Aug. 


3, 


1907. 



72 



CORN. 



Rainfall 



Aug. 

Aug. 


5, 


1907 


Aug. 


G, 


1907 


Aug. 


7, 


1907 


Aug. 


s. 


1907 


Aug. 


9, 


1907 


Aug. 


10, 


1907 


Aug. 


11, 


1907 


Aug. 


12, 


1907 


Aug. 


13, 


1907 


Aug. 


11, 


1907 


Aug. 


15, 


1907 


Aug. 


16, 


1907 


Aug. 


17, 


1907 


Aug. 


18, 


1907 


Aug. 


19, 


1907 


Aug. 


20, 


1907 




Trace 



A close study of the two tables will reveal several very striking 
points. In the increase of growth there is a gradual rise in the number 
of inches per day as the plants near forty inches in height. That is, 
when the plants are smaller the root system has not developed suf- 
ficiently to secure an abundance of plant food which will push the 
plant along. It will be seen that this rapidity of growth is kept up 
until the tassel begins to appear in August; then a decided slackening 
occurs. 

A relative study of the second table with the first shows more rapid 
growth during the days of the highest temperature. However, the 
greater factor is the amount of precipitation during these warmer 
days. The period from July 15th to 25th inclusive, the amount of 
rainfall was 3.5 inches. With the high temperature plants at that 
age utilized this excessive moisture and rapid increase in height 
ensued. 



Light 

necessary 

for 

caxbon 

fixation 



LIGHT. In 1779, Ingenhouss discovered that oxygen gas is given 
off from foliage and carbon deposited in the structure and tissues of 
plant due to the influence of light upon the absorbed carbon dioxide. 
Partial darkness decreases to a certain extent the assimilation of 
carbon dioxide, beside eliminating the green chlorophyll entirely. 
Absolute darkness even causes the plant to lose in weight and deter- 
iorate in structure. The yellow corn plant growing in a shaded place 
or under a clod is a practical example of a lack of sunlight. This is 
often seen also in the listed furrow. Corn which is drilled thickly for 
fodder purposes, shows long, slender internodes, and very often has 
short narrow leaves. The cells of the plant are elongated and require 
a large amount of moisture to maintain their turgidity. In cold, 
cloudy seasons, crops are always late in maturing. 



PLANT FOOD. 



73 



PLANT FOOD FROM THE AIR. The term plant food is com- 
monly used to designate all of the crude materials which are taker* 
into the plant, and which are utilized by it. Strictly speaking, the 
term "plant food" is not analagous to the same term used in connec- 
tion with animals. Plant foods are rather the raw mtaerials used in 
the manufacture of food. These materials are built into carbo- 
hydrates, fat, and proteids, and in' this form are used as food by the 
plant. However, as we are here concerned with the source rather 
than with the finished product, the term plant food will be used in its 
more commonly accepted sense — that is, as meaning the crude mater- 
ials. 

Disregarding the other constituents, which are present only in 
very limited amounts, the atmosphere contains in one hundred parts:* 

By Weight. By Volume. 

Oxygen 23.17 20.95 

Nitrogen 76.83 79.05 

(i) Oxygen. 

Free oxygen is utilized by plants in exactly the same way as in the 
body of an animal. Foods are required for the purpose of building 
up new tissues and to furnish energy by their decomposition for the 
growth and movement of a plant and its parts. Oxygen is necessary 
for the latter process, the evolution of energy from the food material 
being a process of oxidation. Carbon dioxide is given off as a result 
and may again be utilized in f^hotosyiithcsis, which is discussed below. 
The liberation of energy from the food or tissue substance is known 
as respiration. 

(2) Nitrogen. 

Free nitrogen as such cannot be assimilated by any green plant. 
Small quantities of ammonia and nitric acid are washed down by rains 
into the soil and are taken up by the roots. Certain bacteria, how- nitrogen °' 
ever, some living free in the soil and others in nodules of legumes fix 
the free nitrogen of the atmosphere and convert it into a form which 
can be utilized directly or indirectly by the plant. 

(3) Carbon. 

Just what is the source of the large amount of carbon used by the 
plants was at one time a subject of extensive investigation. Experi- 
ments show that plants flourish and increase in carbon content when 
their roots feed in a nutrient solution containing no carbon. This 
carbon must then, in such cases, be drawn from the air. But carbon, 

*Air also contains between .03 and .05 per cent of carbon dioxide. 



Photo- 
synthesis 



74 



CORN. 



as a free element, well illustrated by pvire charcoal, does not exist in 
the atmosphere. The compound carbon dioxide CO2, however, is 
present to the extent of 3 parts in 10,000 parts of air. Experiments 
have fiulher proved that the carbon dioxide gas is absorbed directly 
necessary by the foliage in solar light. The stomata aid in this absorption, it 
has also been found that plants die in an atmosphere free from carbon 
dioxide. The carbon after entering the cells of the plant undergoes a 
chemical change by combining with water, as just previously de- 
scribed. This conversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbo- 




(Courtesy of Iowa State College) Fig. 18. 

FIELD WHICH HAS BEEN DROWNED OUT EAKLY IN THE SPRING. 

Notice the corn is in patches. The water logged soil prevented the permeation 
of air. 

hydrates is known as "photosynthesis." The resulting solution of 
soluble carbohydrates accumulate rapidly in the tissues of the plant 
and oxygen is given off. 

The corn plant, which is so dark green in color and bears a large 
foliage area, is a gross feeder upon carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 



PLANT FOOD FROM THE SOIL. Not all plants require the 
soil as a medium of growth, but those which do call upon the soil 
for organic and inorganic substances. The principal elements neces- 
sary for plant growth required from the soil are : 



PLANT FOOD. 75 

(i) Carbon. Although plants draw upon the atmosphere for their 
supply of carbon, yet the decaying organic matter or humus in the soil 
is also the source of a small amount. Air permeating the interstices 
of a soil rich in decaying organic matter has been found to contain as 
much as 5 per cent of carbon dioxide. This is a large amount com- 
pared with that usually found in the air — 3 parts in 10,000. 

(2) Nitrogen. Nitrogen is made available by the decay of 
organic matter in the soil. The ammoniacal form is changed by micro- 
scopic organisms present in the soil, into nitrous acid ; other organ- ^^^^^ ^^ 
isms in turn change this to nitric acid, which when in union with the §**t|^i°^ 
mineral bases forms the nitrates which are the directly available 

forms of nitrogen. As the nitrogenous organic compounds, such as 
dung, urine, and green manure, as well as ammonium salts, are 
finally changed to nitrates, it is evident that the corn plant growing 
on a field which has been treated with manures of this character 
draws its nitrogen supply from the nitrates of calcium, magnesium, 
potassium and sodium, formed by the union of their decomposition 
products with the bases in the soil. Nitrogen gathering bacteria living 
in symbiotic relation with certain plants, namely, the legumes, draw 
upon the abundant supply of nitrogen in the air, transforming it into 
nitric acid, thus making it available for the plant. The element nitro- 
gen enters largely into the formation of the grain. Sixteen per cent 
of the elementary composition of protein is nitrogen. Experiments 
have shown that corn grown on soils rich in nitrogen are higher in 
protein content. 

(3) Phosphorus. Phosphorus constitutes a large proportion of 
the ash of seeds. The amount of phosphorus (calculated as phos- 
phoric acid) in the ash of the wheat kernel is 45 to 50 per cent, while 
in the straw it is only 5 per cent.* 

Phosphorus is absorbed in the form of phosphates of calcium and 
potassium. It enters into the formation of the proteins and is also 
present in the inorganic compounds. 

In live stock farming phosphorus is more largely sold from the 
farm than any other of the principal soil constituents necessary for 
plant growth. Being used in the formation of bone and muscle the 
per cent of phosphorus in a feed is of significance in feeding young 
animals. 

(4) Potassium. Potassium, usually spoken of as potash, K20, the 
oxidized form, requires less serious consideration from the standpoint 
of its ultimate depletion in the soil than either nitrogen or phos- 

•"Agricultural Botany," Percival. 



76 



CORN. 



Lime 



phorus. In the first place, there is already in all soils, except some 
peaty-swamp soils, a large supply. Furthermore, the fact that it is 
present in the straw rather than the grain of plants, guarantees, under 
more modern methods of farming, its return to the soil each year. 

Potassium is taken in largely as a nitrate, chloride, carbonate, sul- 
phate and phosphate. In the assimilation of carbon dioxide the proc- 
ess is facilitated by the presence of potassium. Any plant containing 
a large percentage of carbohydrates usually shows a considerable 
amount of potassium in the ash. The fact that wheat straw loses its 
stiffness upon a soil which is so rich in nitrogen as to force the plant 
along without sufficient potash, proves this. The glazed surface and 
woody wall of the corn stalk are due to the strengthening power of 
potash. 

(5) Calcium. Calcium, usually known as CaO, or lime, is neces- 
sary to correct the acidity of soils which have been farmed continu- 
ously, and whose humus content has been almost exhausted. Al- 
though of less importance in the actual development of plants, the 
amount of lime in the ash of barley, oat, and wheat straw is generally 
about seven per cent.* 

(6) Other Plant Foods. Sulphur enters into the composition of 
the protein. Magnesia is found in the ash of seeds, especially in small 
grains. Iron is an essential element of chlorophyll. Plants grown in 
nutrient solutions, free from iron, have no green color. Although sili- 
con, sodium, and chlorine are present in the ash of plants, some author- 
ities claim that they are unessential to the growth of plants. 

The following table gives the amount of the three chief elements 
of plant food found in the principal farm crops by analyses. 



Nitrogen 



Phosphorus 



Potassium 



Corn, grain . 
Corn, stover 
Entire crop . 
Oats, grain . 
Oat straw . . 
Entire crop . . 
Wheat, grain 
Wheat straw 
Entire crop 
Timothy hay 
Clover hay . 
Cowpea hay 
Alfalfa hay . 



100 bushels 
6 tons 

75 bushels 
2 tons 

40 bushels 
2 tons 

2 tons 

3 tons 
3 tons 
8 tons 



100 pounds 


17 pounds 


19 pou 


48 


6 


52 


148 


23 


71 


45 


7 


9 


24 


4 


40 


69 


11 


49 


46 


6 


11 


19 


4 


34 


65 


10 


45 


48 


6 


47 


120 


15 


90 


140 


15 


95 


400 


36 


192 



The table showing the amount of different elements taken from the 
soil by the principal crops is taken from circular No. 68 of the Illinois 
Experiment Station. 

* "Agricultural Botany," Percival. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 77 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The subject of germination as here 
treated was suggested largely by the outline appearing in the Agron- 
omy Scries written by Professor P. G. Holden, of the Iowa State Col- 
lege, for the Sioux City, Iowa, Correspondence School in Agriculture. 
Many ideas in regard to plant growth were secured from this source 
also. 

The measurements of corn were made by Prof. H. G. Bell, of the 
Farm Crops Department, of the Iowa State College. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Effect of Fungicides upon Germination, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 41. 
Water Reciuircments of Corn, 

Utah Bulletin No. 86. 




CHAPTER V. 



CLIMATE AND SOIL IN ITS RELA- 
TION TO CORN 

CORN AND CLIMATE 

The factors which are absolutely essential to the production of a 
corn crop may be included under the following heads : 

1. Seed used. 

2. Cultivation (both before and after planting). 

3. Climate (including 'temperature, sunshine, precipitation). 

4. Topographical features (including nature and condition of 

soil). 
Favorable The final yield and character of the crop are determined by these 

essential factors. If, in any particular case, one of these is found to be un- 
favorable to the needs of the crop, that one factor may determine the 
character of the crop produced. It is usually impossible to ascertain 
definitely just how much influence on the final outcome has been 
exerted by any particular factor. However, much of both interest 
and profit may be learned by a study of that factor, even though it 
may be largely or wholly beyond human control, as is the case with 
temperature or precipitation. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON DISTRIBUTION. Corn is 

under grown under more widely varying conditions than almost any other 
conditions Cereal. It is raised in every state and territory except Alaska, and in 
both Mexico and Canada. Nevertheless, as is shown in another chap- 
ter, the great bulk of the production is centered in the seven principal 
states of the corn belt — Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, 
Indiana and Ohio. The reason for the largely centralized production 
of a crop showing such wide adaptability, is found in the fact that on 
the area mentioned is found the most favorable combination of soil 
We cannot and climate. Other large areas may possess equally favorable soil 
the conditions, but the climate is not so well suited to corn raising. Where 
the soil and temperature are all that could be asked, the rainfall is 



CORN AND CLIMATE. 



79 



usually found to be either insuffcient or not properly distributed over 
the long growing season. *Such is found to be the case when the 70 
to 80 degree July isotherm of the northern latitude is traced around 
the world. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON CHARACTER OF GROWTH. 

Corn displays a wonderfully variability in its habits of growth. It 
adjusts itself readily, though somewhat slowly, to changes in its 
environment. This adaptability of the plant has resulted in a very 
marked correlation between the manner of growth and the climatic 
conditions under which it has been grown for a term of years. This 
correlation is seen in 

1. The time of maturity and hence length of growing season. 

2. Size and nature of the stalks. 

3. Yield and character of the grain. 

The length of the growing season for corn varies from 90 to 160 
days, and in different parts of the United States are found varieties 
which are adapted to this wide range. In Iowa** the average length 
of the growing season is 173.4 days. According to Hunt, the rate of 
shortening of the season as we go north of a given latitude is, in 
general, about one day for each ten miles. The reverse is true as we 
go south. 

The length of the growing season is in general the most important 
factor in determining the size of the stalk produced. The long sea- 
sons of the south induce the growth of tall, massive stalks with large 
yields of both fodder and grain, while the shorter northern season in- 
duces a small, stunted stalk with a moderate yield of grain. The 
larger stalks are more coarse and woody in structure, while the 
smaller ones are much less so, and produce a better quality of fodder. 
Accompanying these differences in the stalk are corresponding differ- 
ences in the grain. The southern corn has large ears with long, deep 
kernels, possessing a deep, pinched dent and a structure that is in- 
clined to be starchy. On the other hand as we go north the opposite 
of these characters are seen. The dent grows shallower and smoother 
and the kernels shorter and more horny and flinty, until they merge 
into the characteristic Flint corn of the north. The differences seen 
in these respects between sections no further separated than the north- 
ern and southern parts of Iowa, are very marl-red, while beyond the 
borders of the state the differences are still more noticeable. The de- 
pendence of yield upon climate is seen when the average production 
per acre for the state for a term of years is considered. Under similar 

^Hunt's ''Cerpalsin America,'" Page 203. 
**Report Iowa Weather and Crop Service, 1902. 



We 

should 

however 

know 

their 

effects 



Long 
growing 
season 
necessary. 



Variation 
in 

yield in 
Iowa 



80 



CORN. 



Corn 

can 

be 

acclimated 

to 

new 

conditions 



Corn 

tends to 

maintain 

uniform 

composition 



conditions, aside from climate, the yield for Iowa has varied from 
14.8 bushels to 41 bushels per acre. During two successive seasons, 
yields of 14.8 bushels and 38 bushels per acre, respectively, were pro- 
duced. That all the differences mentioned are due largely to climate 
is indicated by the fact that they occur over a wide range of soils and 
correspond closely to difference in climate. 

That other factors, such as crossing, natural selection or "survival 
of the fittest," and conscious and unconscious selection by man, are 
also partly responsible, is very probable. 

CLIMATE AND VARIETIES. Whatever caused the original 
form of varieties, it is evident that a slight change in climate will 
affect corn seriously; but after a few 3''ears it adjusts itself to the new 
conditions and becomes fully acclimated. It was by such a process 
that the cultivation of corn has been gradually extended northward 
in the United States. Today this cereal is grown successfully, where 
twenty-five years ago its cultivation was impossible. Although the 
corn plant is so sensitive to climatic changes, it adjusts itself to them 
so readily that new varieties can be successfully introduced if they 
are first grown on a small scale until fully acclimated. The sensitive- 
ness of the plants, however, suggests that caution should be used 
about purchasing for field production in a large way, seed from a dis- 
tant locality, particularly if that locality be in a different latitude. 

EFFECT OF CLIMATE UPON COMPOSITION. Unlike the 
wheat plant, the chemical composition of which is largely dependent 
upon climate, corn appears to be but slightly affected by such influ- 
ences. Richardson '''analyzed many samples of corn grown in the var- 
ious parts of the United States, but from seed obtained from a com- 
mon source. The variation in the ash content was found to be small ; 
that of oil and crude fiber was proportionately the same as was found 
in wheat, fairly constant, but the content of albuminoids (protein) 
did not vary nearly so widely as did those of wheat. These results 
are supported by analyses of foreign corns by Koenig. "Our conclu- 
sion must be then, that corn can supply itself with nitrogen, under 
varied circumstances, but that it rarely is able to assimilate more than 
a certain amount. The bushels may vary, and the size of the grain, 
but the quantity of albuminoids is practically unchanged."* From 
these experiments Wiley concludes that "It is evident that Indian 
corn, growing as it does over the whole of the United States, is one 
of those crops which tends more than any other to maintain a uni- 
form composition and to vary less under environment. It is this char- 

*yearbook U. S. Department of Agiicu'.ture, 1901. 



PRECIPITATION. 



81 



acteristic of Indian corn which enables it to be grown with success 
under such widely varying conditions."* This, of course, is not tak- 
ing selection into consideration. 

RELATION OF CORN GROWING TO PRECIPITATION. In 

the production of a corn crop water is of the utmost importance. The 
yield obtained is more often decided or limited by this factor than 
by any other. Corn does not require so much water for each pound 300 to 
of dry matter produced as do many other crops, but the large total p'S'unds 
weight of this crop more than overbalances such a consideration, transpired 
Whereas, the average amount of water transpired by plants is usually 
given as 500 pounds for each pound of dry matter, the amount for corn 
is 300 pounds. 

The following table is inserted here as a basis for the discussions 
which are taken up. It shows the figures from which charts Nos. one, 
two, three, four and five were made. 

CORN YIELD AVERAGE IN IOWA FOR 18 YEARS. 



Year 


Average 


Year 


Average 


1890 


28 bu. 


1899 


36.3 bu. 


1891 


38 

29 


1900 


43.3 


1892 


1901 


26.2 


1893 


35.7 

14.8 


1902 


34.0 


1894 


1903 


31 


1895 


38 


1904 


36 


1890 


39 


1905 


37.2 


1897 


29 


1900 


41 


1898 


34.5 


1907 


29.5 



Average 33.2 

MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL OF IOWA FOR 18 YEARS 



Year 


Temperature 


Rainfall 


1890 


47.7 
47.4 
47.5 
45.7 
49.7 
45.5 
48.5 
46.7 
47.6 
47.6 
49.5 
49.0 
47.8 
47.3 
46.3 
47.3 
48.7 
47.4 


31.28 


1891 


32 90 


1892 


36.58 


1893 


27.59 


1894 


21.91 


1895 


26 77 


1896 


37.23 


1897 


26.97 


1898 


31.34 


1899 


28 68 


1900 


34.15 


1901 


24 41 


1902 


43.82 


1903 


35 66 


1904 


28 74 


1905 

1906 

1907 


36.51 
31.23 
31.62 



*Yearbook Dept. Agriculture, 1901. 



82 CORN. 

MONTHLY MEAN PRECIPITATION IN IOWA FOR 18 YEARS. 






Year 


May 


June 


July 


August 


Average 


1890 


3.56in. 

3.18 

8.77 

3.45 

1.87 

3.19 ■ 

6.68 

1.92 

4.67 

6.23 

3.31 

2.35 

5.39 

8.55 

3.78 

5.95 

3.54 

3.48 

4.44 


7.7GiD. 

5.39 

5.19 

3.90 

2.67 

4.32 

3.10 

3.81 

4.72 

5.04 

3.98 

3.71 

7.16 

2.86 

3.45 

5.53 

3.92 

5.35 

4.55 


1.98in. 

4.22 

5.29 

3.33 

0.63 

3.40 

6.90 

3.26 

2.98 

3.07 

6.15 

2.34 

8.67 

4.83 

4.41 

2.91 

3.04 

7.27 

4.15 


3.41 in. 

4.24 

2.24 

2.32 

1.58 

4.43 

3.52 

1.86 

3.44 

3.68 

4.65 

1.29 

6.58 

6.64 ' 

3.43 

4.05 

3.95 

4.33 

3.64 


4.18 In. 


1891 

1892 


4.26 
5.37 


1893 

1894 

1895 

1896 


3.25 
1.69 
3.84 
5.05 


1897 

1898 


2.71 
3.95 


1899 


4.50 


1900 


4.52 


1901 


2.42 


1902 


6.35 


1903 


5.72 


1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

Average 


3.77 
4.61 
3.61 
5.11 
4.2 



MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE IN IOWA FOR 18 YEARS. 



Year 


May 


June 


July 


August 


Average 


1890 


57.7 
58.3 
54.0 
56.6 
61.1 
61.7 
65.5 
59.6 
59.6 
60.2 
63.2 
60.7 
63.8 
61.6 
59.6 
58.3 
60.8 
53.5 
59.8 


72.7 
69.1 
69.2 
71.2 
73.2 
69.7 
69.1 
69.1 
71.4 
70.7 
69.7 
72.3 
65.2 
64.6 
67.1 
68.9 
67.9 
65.6 
G9.3 


75.6 
68.6 
73.0 
75.0 
76.4 
72.1 
73.6 
75.6 
73.4 
73.1 
73.4 
82.4 
73.1 
72.9 
70.6 
70.6 
70.9 
73.7 
73.6 


68.4 
69.1 
71.4 
69.4 
74.6 
71.9 
71.7 
68.9 
71.2 
74.4 
77.4 
73.8 
69.1 
69.1 
69.1 
74.3 
74.1 
71.1 
71.6 


68.6 


1891 


66.3 


1892 

1893 


66.9 
68.1 


1894 

1895 


71.3 
68.9 


1896 


70.0 


1897 

1898 

1899 


68.3 
68.9 
69.6 


1900 

1901 


70.9 
72.2 


1902 


67.8 


1903 


67.1 


1904 


66.6 


1905 


68.0 


1906 


68.4 


1907 


66.0 


Average 


68.2 



Of equal or greater importance than the total amount of rainfall 
is its distribution during the growing season. Corn makes its most 
should rapid growth during the months of July and August, and, therefore^ 
well it is during these months, while the corn is tasseling and forming ears, 
that the greatest amount of rain is needed for the best growth of this 
crop. The so-called small grains require their moisture earlier in the 
season, since they make their growth and mature early. April is the 
critical month for winter wheat, from the standpoint of precipitation, 
and May and June are the important ones for oats. For these reasons, 
the small grains are to quite an extent dependent upon the winter 



distributed 

throughout 

the 

season 



PRECIPITATION. 



83 



precipitation for their moisture, while it is the later rains which bene- 
fit corn. While heavy May and June rains are needed for oats, they 
may be detrimental to corn, in that they favor development of a shal- 
low root system which is ill-fitted to withstand the frequent dry 
weather of July and August. A very wet May or June means also 
a poorer stand, vigorous growth of weeds, ineffective and insufficient 
cultivation, and a puddling of the soils, which means baked and cloddy 
ground when a dry spell arrives. The plants also tend to grow on too 
large a scale, producing too great a proportion of stalks to roots. The 
resulting condition of both plant and soil are such as to unfit them for 
a dry summer. 

The accompanying charts show concretely the importance of pre- 
cipitation and illustrate the foregoing discussion. They are based 
upon the average yields of corn in Iowa for the past eighteen years 
and the mean monthly temperatures and precipitations for the same 
period. In each case, the heavy lines represent the normal yield, tem- 
perature, and rainfall. The first chart shows the relation of yield to 
the total rainfall of the growing season, or the months of May to 
August inclusive. With a few explainable exceptions, the yield and 
rainfall agree very closely. The years 1892, 1902 and 1903, show high 
precipitation, with yields not correspondingly large, but the other 
charts show that in each of these seasons there was an excessively 
wet May or June, or both, accompanied by a low average temperature. 
In 1893, the yield was higher than the rainfall for these months would 
account for, but it follows a very wet season and the April (1893) had 
an unusually large amount of rain, which is not included in the total 
which is plotted. In 1906, the largest average yield is shown with a 
rainfall slightly below normal. The May, June and July conditions 
of that year were nearly normal, while the critical month of August 
was exceptionally favorable. The low yield of 1907 is accounted for 
on the grounds of the very cold May and June, early frosts in the fall 
and erratic distribution of the rainfall. 

Charts i and 2 do not show close correlations between yields and 
precipitations for May and June. The explanations for these discrep- 
encies have already been given. 

The correlations of yields and rainfall for July and August, espe- 
cially the latter, shown by charts 3 and 4, illustrate the importance of 
rainfall to corn during these months. The August precipitation fol- 
lows the yield, even more closely than does the total seasonal rainfall. 

Rainfall affects not only yield, but habit of growth as well. A wet 
season favors larger and continued growth, while a dry one induces 



Previous 

season 

has 

something 

to 

do. 



Bainfall 

affects 

habit 

of 

growth 



84 



CORN. 







PRECIPITATION. 



85 



9jn/D^^C/U79L 


w 

>< 


U0//0//c//D3^(-^ 


< \ 


P/9/^ 






X - - -_X 




_±: : .-I ::__: : 


- -- 


-H - - 


::::::::::::::::: 






___________^ 














^ ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 





^ : _ _ __ - 


'^ V .^ ^ '' 




_->ti:i^^^_ 


g , 


Hill Msilr 


1 ::::::::::::::::::::::S:: 


::- -^ 




' \. 




f 


^ ::::::::::::::::::::::::! 


-,2:.±_^::::::::::::::: 


1 ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 


!i;:::-±::::::::::::::: 




1 N 1 V 




-^-ti--t^'^n 


1 ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 


:^s±:+_^£:::::::::::: 




5^_it:ir_si> _ :_. 


J, 


Iiy [J_^itj[j 1 1 1 


^:::: ::::::::::::::::::::: 






"-T"' ?ff" ' 


n^ _ __ _ ,_ "' 


^Jl V 


$ ::-::::::? = :5 = " 


---iS±--:- 




^ \ "^^ 


__ _I}I_ "* 


= __$:a5^^___:_: 




' i "^^5^ 


1 :::::: :::::: :::: :: :'- 


L_l^i^ 




^i^r^ 




--Ss^ 


§ : ?- 


_-^a^ 


1, ^ _:: :__„_::'s 


Xl^y ^ - - --- - .: 


/^W .::::::::::::::::::::::::: 


5^g:i:::::::::::::::::: 


vS^g 1 ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 


|g^:::::::::::::::::: 


Jo :::::::::::::::::::::::: 




^ 5 


\\i 


o ^ , 


-1 — \ic — '" 


"^ _. _ 


tjix^^j::::::::::::::::: 


N 




^ 


--r-^Ss::::::::::::::: 




_i^^.^, 


* 


;.^$r::::s::::::::::::: 


1 ::::::::::::::::::::::::[: 


:::::E::::2::::::::::::: 


±-\ 


__ -X _?-- .. 


^::::::i::r:::::::::::::1 


::::?4:;:::::;:::::::::::: 


1 :::::::::: :::: 




::::::::::::.:- 


- ^ :s^--.^ -- 


1 :-::|::::::-;::: 


5,. ; = »►- 




y •—'' 




__^,fe 


a ::::::::::::::::::::::::5 


1'' " '^y' 




•K~^\ "7?^ 




^ s^ 


g 


''n P\ 


1:::: :::::::::: :::: 


:7:::f 2'::::: + :::::::::: 


^ 


:L5t:::::::::: + :::::: 




-,<! 1 


1 :__::_:::::_:::::_:..:__. 


i£ t 




:*5; :::::::::::::::::: 


i - ,- " ^' 


tlllltlmllllllllllllllll 






(X; <0 N v© 


*^ > K^ Al 


1^ ^ ft! 


N « >« vft <C 



I 



I 4 



4? 



86 



CORN. 






f ' 'c ■ — 


uo//a/fd/:ia^c:/ \ 


P/s^ f 








. - _ 




















5; -- " : _ ._ : . .^: . _ 


1 ■" ~ " :!^ = >z:. - .,e:'-. _ . _ .- 


^ "" !- = ^_ -^' ^^ - -. - _ - 


Ht TT H^UKj \\\\. 




* ii l-HT TirH-i 


^ ..____._---_ — , , 






- --- -^-- _-- - - -- - 


5 __ k . . _i .. 


« — - — -- - --:_:;:?:--.. ,?_t.. -. - _ 


*^ - - - --- ____.\ ^.. A - - 


:_: : - :: : t ..^ _ i . 


u -- . , ^ _ - 4 . 


5 — _.; : I J 


1 : : : — :::::sr:: — ""^ . _ 




' " : : > 5- . . . _- 


^ " ~ " - -A v.,^ --- -- - - 


5 " "" ' _ - _: -,: .2.- - 


^ ;,- 




._ _ - -. -_ -- l'--- -- 


IV, ,-1 - -- -- ^-J - . _ _ 


It nTRT U U JJU-HTi 1 


= = .-3,g_ = _: «.^_ 


^ ::::::::;:=::^:::::::::::::::: :=-:::; = ;;::::::::::: 


1 : : :!::•;_: :.-:.:::::.._,-:: = -!-_ -. - . 


._.__^ ^^j- 




- _ . _ ^aas;. - . 


§ : :., = _:::.:l = , ._. 


«::::: ::: — * ;!:: i . 


^ . __ _i*t.^ . _ - _ _ 


>'.^ 


», I"".:: ; . : : " :._: iis::!;:,-, : : "i 




^ :: :: :;_ . _ :. : — 5 l i 


: . ------ -■ - - _--_- : 


\ . , . -_ . 


«<5 : — :::__: : : ^_ j _ . 


« L.; 


^ ._ .:: ^: " :: : : 


-- - - - /. s A . . 


, . / U L . _ . 


!s--- - - _ s . _- 


»; .__ : _./ _Nj .:__:_. 


^ :: - : : ::: ^ .t^* 


r ^-^''^ 


' S ^ ' 


"" ~~ " it --' ^''^ " ■ " " ~ 


§ .: ._:_:.:_-. :__*=::___£::__s: _.:_ __:::_;:__:_: 




,^ 'w " - 


[•- " >, 


_ ^.,^__s---- 


^ __ _. : i.^i.ii'-j' " .: _. . 




? ■* - "^ 


^ ■* ■- - '^ ^ 


V I - : ' ,' - - ■■--.= .; 


1 ^2: :::_;_:_:___:: ::_!:Ji:: 




^ - — ■ ^ -^ "* 


#*\ k p— ■''^-'' 


s ._ . : : : *• ,«-'' :■' :: 


^ :::: --^^;-- ^^ - 


-. - "■ N : ' 


T -. ^N^ 


•Vj - _ ^^^"'^.. " 


s _.: ;:! :k^,." 


^ ^- '•p;- 


.•,,-^ - 


> . ' - s - 


^ X - ^ -'S" - 


^ __ _ . . __ <' i " "'"=>." 


^ -H --- -_«. > — ;: = ' 


'>- ^^ ji- - 


S ' ; . -■~. - 


Is - = "'s " -^"' 


5 J-H-Ftl-PK.1 1 i>H.I M M 1 M 1 


>^ ^??!fi^^S^ H?^^?!;:U«^^5^^^5i 


1^ •^^^o«^l(^|f)(\^v, 


K % §f5fSft|?}f^^ 



I, 

u 



1 






:5" 



PRECIPITATION. 



87 



I 




ScS 



CORN. 



I 
5 




— — ■■■.. -1 












SIOUX CITY 


Latest Kil. 

frost Latest Kill 


ing 


Karliest Killing | 


Days 




Frost 




Frost 


1 


Between 


April r 












April : 












April ' 












May 1 












April 












April 












May 












April i 












April i 












April S 












April 












May ] 






September 


17 




May 1 


May 


7 


September 


13 


129 


April 2 


April 


7 


October 


6 


182 


April 2 


May 


7 


October 


8 


154 


May ] 


May 


3 


September 


25 


145 


May ] 


May 


19 


September 


30 


134 


April 


May 


21 


September 


27 


129 


April 


April 


19 


September 


19 


153 


April 


April 


29 


September 


17 


141 


April 1 


April 


2G 


October 


6 


163 


April 


May 


4 


September 


20 


139 


, April 2 


May 


4 


September 


17 


136 


1 April 


April 


19 


September 


17 


150 


May 


April 


23 


September 


13 


143 


April 2 


April 


15 


September 


16 


165 


April 1 


April 


27 


October 


23 


180 


April 


April 


24 


October 


20 


180 


^Tay 


'May 


G 
15 


September 
September 


30 
12 


! 148 


Grow 


j May 


1 121 




1 






1 152.3 


mh of G 


■1 









osts 



THE GROWING SEASON IN IOWA 



DES MOINES 



Utrst Killing 
Kriist 



April 18 

April 11 

April 13 

May 22 

April 1 

April 8 

May 7 

April 2 

April 25 

April 20 

April 4 

May 16 

May 11 

April 29 

April 23 

May 19 

May 12 

April 3 

April 9 

April 4 

April IG 

April 4 

April 20 

April 4 

May 3 

April 21 

April 18 

April 1 

^May 4 



Earliest Killing Days Latest Killing 

Frost Between Frost 



DAVENPORT 



23 

4 

1 



September 12 
September 24 
November 7 
November 9 
November 13 
October 20 
October 
October 
October 
October 
September 29 
September 27 
September 13 
October 5 
October 9 
September 25 
October 14 
September 30 
September 28 
October 29 
October 14 
September 29 
October s 

October 
October 
October 
October 
October 
October 
October 
Season 




159 
210 
210 
175 
202 
198 
150 
181 



25 I 183 
162 
17G 
120 
147 
1G3 
155 
148 
141 
178 
193 
193 
1G6 
187 
167 
193 
159 
18C 
178 
193 
U2 

173.67 



March 
April 
April 
April 
May- 
May 
April 
May 
April 
April 
May 
April 
May 
May 
April 
April 
April 
May 
April 
April 
April 
April 
April 
April 
April 
March 
April 
April 
May 
May 



28 
11 

1 
14 
22 
22 
22 

9 

8 
26 
13 

6 

G 

5 
15 
13 

8 
14 

8 i 

17 I 
7 I 
6 I 
5 I 

21 I 

15 I 

30 

21 

18 
7 

11 



Earliest Killing 
Frost 



October 

October 

October 

November 

November 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 

September 

October 

October 

October 

October 

September 

October 

October 

October 

September 

November 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 

September 



27 
30 

4 
10 

2 

3 
23 

6 

1 
12 

3 

G 
28 

8 
19 
15 

G 
30 

7 
29 
23 
30 

8 

4 
28 
18 
23 
12 
10 
25 



Days 
Between 



DUBUQUE 



212 

201 

185 

209 

163 

133 

182 

149 

175 

169 

142 

182 

145 

155 

186 

184 

180 

137 

181 

194 

198 

167 

216 

165 

195 

203 

189 

178 

157 

137 



Latest Killing 
Frost 



March 18 

April 5 

April 15 

April 

May 

May 

April 

May 

April 

April 

May 

April 

May 

April 

April 15 

April 23 

April 8 

May 14 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 16 

May 9 

May 4 



1 

2 

5 

21 

11 

8 

16 

13 

G 

6 

12 



Ea.liest Killing 
Frost 



October 
October 
October 
November 
October 
October 
October 
October 
October 
October 
September 28 
September 27 
September 28 
October 10 
October 23 
September 27 

October 7 

October 

October 

October 

October 

September 29 

November 4 

October 4 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 

October 



9 
18 
17 
15 



14 
24 
27 
12 
10 
13 



Days 
Between 



KEOKUK 



219 

193 

186 

217 

171 

150 

186 

149 

177 

180 

139 

175 

146 

188 

192 

158 

183 

149 

194 

181 

192 

167 

210 

167 

183 

178 

190 

180 

155 

163 



Latest Killing 
Frost 



March 4 

April 13 

April 17 

April 16 

March 22 

April 24 

April 8 

April 8 
April 



April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

May 

April 

April 

April 

May 



6 
5 
20 
6 
10 
7 
6 
23 
12 
14 
4 
19 
6 
16 
13 
IS 
8 
1 
21 
17 
1 
4 



Earliest Killina 

Frost 



October 19 
October 24 
October 4 

October 24 
November 13 
October 15 
October 23 
October 6 

October 1 

September 29 
September 27 
September 27 
October 19 
October 
October 
October 
October 
September 30 
October 20 
October 29 
October 14 
September 29 
November 8 
November 3 
October 14 



20 

23 

15 

9 



October 
October 
October 
October 
October 



24 
23 
12 
10 
13 



SIOUX CITY 



Days Latest Killing 

Between Frost 



228 
193 
169 
190 
235 
172 
197 
166 
177 
206 

160 

174 

191 

195 

199 

174 

179 

169 

198 

192 j 
190 1 
195 I 

208 ( 

209 I 
188 I 
177 ( 
186 I 
179 I 
193 I 
163 I 



'ng Season for State 173.4 



175.6 



May 

April 

May 

May 

May 

May 

April 

April 

April 

IVlay 

May 

April 

April 

April 

April 

April 

May 

May 



7 
7 
7 
3 
19 
21 
19 
29 
26 
4 
4 
19 
23 
15 
27 
24 
G 
15 



Earliest Killing 
Frost 



177.1 I 



188.4 I 



September 1? 
September 13 
October 6 

October 8 

September 25 
September 30 
September 27 
September 19 
September 17 
October 6 

September 20 
September 17 
September 17 
September 13 
September 16 
October 23 
October 20 
September 30 
September 12 



Days 
Between 



Days. 



129 

182 

154 

145 

134 

129 

153 

141 

163 

139 

136 

150 

143 

165 

180 

180 

148 

152.3 



TEMPERATURE. 89 

smaller growth and earlier ripening. Therefore, in wet seasons, the 
corn is liable to be injured by early autumn frosts. 

The peculiar adaptability of the climate of the corn belt states to 
the growing of this cereal is accounted for by the fact that the greater 
part of the rainfall occurs during the crop season. For example, in 
Iowa 71 per cent of the total precipitation, or 22.48 inches, occurs dur- 
ing the six crop months, while 51 per cent, or 16.29 inches, falls during 
the four most critical crop months of May to August, inclusive.* Dur- 
ing the three spring months 28 per cent of the precipitation occurs, in 
the summer and autumn respectively, the percentages are 39 and 23, 
while but 10 per cent falls during the winter. 

RELATION OF CORN GROWING TO TEMPERATURE. 

Corn is a semi-tropical plant and requires for its maximum growth a 
moderately large rainfall, well distributed through the growing sea- 
son, together with a large amount of sunshine and a relatively high 
temperature. An examination of the accompanying charts will show 
that in Iowa the combination of large precipitation and high average 
temperatures is rarely found. In fact, these two seem to be opposed 
to each other. A heavy rainfall is accompanied by a low average tem- 
perature, a low rainfall and high temperatures (e. g. 1894 and 1901) 
are found together. For these reasons no very direct relationship be- 
tween yields and average temperatures can be traced. 

Another feature of temperature, that of frosts, is not shown by the 
charts. Late spring and early autumn frosts decrease the yields, but 
such influences cannot be plotted. Unseasonable frosts shorten the Frosts 
growing season, the importance of which is obvious. 

For the purpose of familiarizing the student with the conditions 
of the weather in the early part of the season and to show the dates of 
frosts during the fall, the following table is given. Being very com- 
plete and representing data from different parts of the state it can be 
used as a guage for future reference. Like data from the different 
states may be secured from the local stations of the United States 
weather bureau. 

*Rftpor; I.,wn Weather and Crop Service (3 902) 



90 



CORN. 

CORN AND SOIL FERTILITY 



SOIL ADAPTED TO CORN. With a favorable climate, the 
factor which influences the yield of corn most is the nature and 
condition of the soil. Corn will thrive on a wide variety of soils, but 
it will grow best and give the most profitable returns on a dark loam 
that it well supplied with humus or organic matter. The soil should 
be well drained at the surface, although a water table three or four 
feet below is an advantage rather than otherwise. Such a soil is most 
often found on the bottom lands of the glaciated areas of the corn 
belt. Profitable crops may also be produced upon light soils, if they 
are so handled, by manuring and the growing of leguminous crops, 
that the supply of humus is maintained. 

Although corn is a vigorous grower, a gross feeder, and can utilize 
such materials as coarse barnyard manures better than most other 
Corn cereals, it does not do well on poor land. Some crops are not depend- 
poorly ent for grain production on the total growth of the plant; but the 
thin nature of corn is such that it will not produce a heavy yield of grain 
unless the soil is rich enough to permit a considerable growth of 
stalks and the largest yield is not secured unless the stalks attain a 
strong vigorous development. For this reason it is best to grow other 
crop on very poor land until its fertility can be built up. 

INFLUENCES OF SOIL ON COMPOSITION OF CORN. The 

composition of the corn plant and particularly the protein content, 
varies with the conditions under which it is grown. Among the fac- 
tors which determine the composition, the fertility of the soil is a 
most important one. This subject has been studied extensively at the 
Wisconsin Experiment Station.* It was there found that corn grown 
in sand to which no fertilizer had been applied, contained but 8.44 
per cent protein, as compared with 9.94 per cent, when a small amount 
of sodium nitrate was added to the soil, and 11.5 per cent when that 
amount of fertilizer was doubled. 

The results of the experiments point toward the following con- 
clusions : 

(i) "That the percentage of protein in the plant is dependent 
directly upon the amount of nitrate in the soil ; 

(2) That corn on different fields may make very nearly equal 
growth, while differing materially in percentage of protein produced ; 

(3) That beyond a certain point, the percentage of protein is not 
increased by excess of nitrates ; and 



Soil does 

influence 

composition 

of 

corn 



■^Wisconsin Station Reports 1902, pp. 192 — ^209; 1904, pp. 193 — 9. 



91 




^*^ 



92 



CORN. 



(4) That in the presence of a sufficient amount of nitrates in the 
soil, variations in the growth of the plant are caused by the amounts of 
the salts in the soil other than nitrates." 

At the Minnesota Station, *Snyder found that the composition of 
corn fodder varies with the conditions under which it is produced. 
Fodder grown on manured land contained 8.85 per cent protein, while 
that from unmanured ground contained but 6.32 per cent. The im- 
portance of this is readily seen when it is remembered that "high 
grade corn fodder is more valuable than the best grade of timothy 
hay, while corn fodder grown on poor unmanured soil that has re- 
ceived poor cultivation, where the crop has not been properly cared 
for and the leaves are lost, has about the same feeding value as straw." 




(Courtesy L.iwden Mfg. Co.) 



Fig. 19. 



HOG BARN, WITH LITTER CARRIER DEPOSITING MANURE IN RACK, TO KEEP THE STOCK 
FROM TRAMPLING IT IN THE MUD ABOUT THE LOT. 



CONTINUOUS GROWING OF CORN. A glance at the history 
of those agricultural regions of America which have proved to be par- 
ticularly well adapted to some one "money" crop, reveals a reckless 
ti»e disregard for the original fertility of the soil. In each of these districts, 

'Money" fe fe ^ . ., 

crop the one crop has been raised on the same ground continuously, until 
much of the soil has been greatly depleted. The impoverished cotton 
and tobacco lands of the south, the wheat lands of the northwest, which 
now produce but a fraction of the yields that they once did, and the 
run-down farms so numerous throughout the corn belt, all stand as a 
reproach to the wasteful cropping systems followed. 

The continuous growing of a single crop upon the same land year 
after year causes 

*15th Bi. Report Kansas Station, Board of Agriculture, Page 3&5. 



HUMUS. 



93 



(i) A great deterioration in the physical condition of the soil. 

(2) A waste of the soil fertility, especially of the humus and 
nitrogen. 

(3) An increase of the weed enemies and the insect pests that 
attack the crop, and as a result of all these, decreased crop yields. 

HUMUS. The productive capacity of most of the land of the Land must 

corn belt is largely measured by its physical condition and its content ^l^^ 

of humus and nitrogen. Deterioration in the physical condition of condition 

a soil is accompanied by soil washing and lessening of its water-hold- retuSr*^°* 




(Courtesy Kemp & Burpee) 



Fig. 20. 



MANURE SPREADER IN OPERATION ON PASTURE LAND WHICH IS TO BE PLANTED TO 

CORN THE NEXT YEAR. 



ing capacity. These results are brought about by the rapid exhaustion 
of the humus. The frequent cultivation which is given the corn crop 
promotes the aeration of the soil and thus permits the organic matter 
to be rapidly oxidized. The humus serves as a binding material to 
hold the soil particles together. In fine grained soils, such as clays, 
it gives a more loamy texture, such as is seen in soils which are 
in good condition. Such soils will not bake or become cloddy, or run 
together when wet, and are not so subject to washing as soil contain- 
ing less organic matter. Humus also helps to fill the otherwise too 



94 



CORN. 



Humus 

absorbs and 

holds moisture 



Continuous 

cropping 

influences 

humus 

supply 



Nitrogen 

a valuable 

element 

and easily 

lost 



Continuous 
cropping 
of corn 
depletes 
nitrogen 
supply 



Plant 

food 

must be 

in an 

available 

form 



large air space in loose, open, sandy soils, thus preventing too rapid 
leaching and holding the moisture nearer the surface, where it can be 
utilized by plants. Humus acts as a sponge in the soil. It is one of 
the best known absorbents of water, and hence its presence adds 
greatly to the water-holding capacity of soils. In Minnesota, *Snyder 
found that a native soil contained 3.97 per cent of humus and had a 
water-holding capacity of 62 per cent, while a soil cultivated for 23 
years, but otherwise similar, contained 2.59 per cent of humus and 
had a capacity for water of only 54 per cent. 

The very rapid depletion of the fertility of the soil by continuous 
cultivation of one crop is also largely due to the resulting loss of 
humus. Humus influences fertility in two ways : 

(i) By supplying nitrogen directly, and 

(2) By helping to make the mineral elements soluble. 

It is from the humus that all crops except legumes must obtain 
their supply of nitrogen. While nitrogen is no more essential to the 
growth of corn than some other soil elements, it is the one which is 
required in the largest amount, and is the one most easily lost from 
the soil. Throughout the corn belt, it is much more often the supply 
of nitrogen than that of any other element which limits the crop pro- 
duction. In Minnesota it has been found that "The loss of nitrogen 
from four grain farms amounted to from three to five times as much 
as that removed by the crops. This loss was due to the rapid decay 
of the humus and the liberation of the nitrogen which forms an essen- 
tial part of the humus." At this same Station, *when corn was grown 
continuously on the same plot for 12 years, the loss of nitrogen 
amounted to 1,400 pounds, or 18 per cent of the total amount orig- 
inally present, and the waste of humus corresponded to that of nitro- 
gen. The yield of corn was much less than that grown on similar 
plots, but in a rotation. By its direct action in rendering the minerals 
of the soil soluble and available to plants, humus performs a most 
important function and greatly influences the crop yields obtainable. 
**A large part of the mineral supplies of a fertile soil are found chem- 
ically combined with humus, and it is chiefly in this form that they 
are used by the crops. Thus, the loss of humus by continuous crop- 
ping places another check on crop yields, for no matter how large the 
natural supply of minerals in a given soil, they are useless to growing 
crops until rendered soluble. 



■■Minnesota Bulletin, No. 89. 
'Minnesota Bulletin, No. 94. 



ROTATIONS. 



95 



NECESSITY OF ROTATIONS. If the great wastes and rapid 
depletion of the soil which follow continuous cropping are to be 
avoided, it is necessary to adopt some systematic rotation of crops. 
The objects of a rotation are: 

(i) To maintain or improve the physical condition of the soil. 

(2) To conserve or improve the soil fertility. 

(3) To guard against insect pests and noxious weeds. 

(4) To distribute the labor throughout the season. 

To accomplish the first two objects it is necessary to check the 
unnecessary waste of humus and to replace by plowing under crop 




Fig. 21. 

MOWING A CROP OF ALFALFA, ONE OF THE LEGUMES WHICH NOT ONLY DEPOSITS NI- 
TBOGEN IN THE SOIL, BUT OPENS UP THE SUTJSOIL TO CONSIDEBABLE DEPTH. 



residues that which is gradually lost. This cannot be done by simply 
alternating corn and oats, or by any rotation which does not include 
a leguminous crop. 

Different crops occupy different strata of the soil, and make differ- 
ent demands upon the elements of plant food. The deep-rooted le- 
gumes utilize plant food which lies beyond the reach of the shallow- 
rooted cereals, after the former are removed from the soil a large 
amount of hitherto unavailable plant food is brought within the reach 



Some 

plants 

feed 

deeper 

than 

others 



96 



CORN. 



of the latter in the form of decaying roots. When it is remembered 
that roots of clover, for instance, represent nearly one-half of the 
weight of the crop, the importance of this source of humus is apparent. 
The principal benefits of rotations are derived from the legumes 
included. Without a legume, a rotation is hardly worthy of the name. 
The members of the legume family of crops, alfalfa, the clovers, soy 
necessary beans, cowpeas, vetch, etc., possess the power of utilizing the nitro- 
roUMon S^" °^ *^^ ^^^ through the medium of bacteria which grow and form 
nodules upon the roots. The decaying roots help to replenish the sup- 
ply of nitrogen and humus. By use of legumes in the rotation, 
the nitrogen and humus supplies of the soil can be very cheaply and 
profitably maintained or increased. Leguminous catch crops should 
be frequently grown and if the soil is especially deficient in humus or 
furnish nitrogen these crops should be plowed under. If the land is subject 
source of to washing or blowing, the catch crops should be left on the ground 
during the winter. 

At the Indiana Experiment Station,* for 15 years corn, oats and 

wheat were grown in rotation with each other in comparison with the 

same crops rotated with timothy and clover. No manure or fertilizer 

was used. During the last nine years of the experiment, the yields of 

Clover tj^g corn crops of the legume rotation were 2.2 per cent higher than 

increases r- o r- o 

■,^-*rcxV^f^^ those of the other rotation. 

in following 

crop ^^ ^hg Illinois Experiment Station continuous corn growing has 
been compared with rotations of corn and oats ; and corn, oats and 
clover with the following results. 

-LATEST YIELDS FROM THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS EXPERIMENT 
FIELD at URBANA, TYPICAL CORN BELT PRAIRIE SOIL.** 
(Three Year Averages in Bushels Per Acre.) 

Crop Years Crop System Experiments Experiments 

1905-6-7 1 Corn every year | 35 Bushels | 27 Bushels 

1903-5-7 1 Corn and oats | 62 " | 46 

1901-4-7 1 Corn, oats and clover | 66 " | 58 

The lesson of these experiments is that 12 years of cropping, where 

corn follows corn every year, reduces the yield from more than 70 

Continual bushels to 35 bushels per acre, after which the decrease is much less rapid, 

cropping . 10111 i-i-i ^ 

with corn amounting to only 8 bushels reduction during the next 10 years, un- 

decrease doubtedlv the rapid reduction during the first 12 years of continuous corn 

growing is due in large part to the destruction of the more active decaying 

organic matter, resulting ultimately in insufficient liberation of plant 

food within the feeding ran^e of the corn roots. In addition to this, 

•^Indiana Bulletin. Nos. 55 and 64. 
**Illinois Bulletin No. 125 (May 1908.) 



MANURES. 



97 



the development of corn insects in soil on which their favorite crop 
is grown every year, is sometimes an important factor in reducing the 
yield. 

"Where corn is followed by oats in a two-year rotation, the de- 
struction of the humus is less rapid and the multiplying of corn insects 
is discouraged by the change to oats every other year. During tho 
first II years the yield decreased from more than 70 bushels to 62 
bushels, and during the next 16 years a further reduction of 16 bush- 
els has occurred." 

It is to be noticed that in computing the average yield for the corn- 
oats-clover rotation, the yield for the very dry year of 1901 was con- 
sidered, and yet this method proved the most profitable. 

At this same Station, the sowing of legume catch crops between 
the rows of corn in the "corn-oats-clover" rotation at the time of the 
last cultivation, raised the yield from 66 to 69 bushels. This was done 
in the so-called "Grain Farming" experiment.* 

MANURES. In tine maintenance of the fertility of corn belt land, 
farm manures form a very important supplement to crop rotation. 
Manures serve a treble purpose in the soil. 

(i) To supply the elements of plant food to plants directly and 
immediately. 

(2) To increase the humus ccnitcnt and thus improve the physical 
condition of soils. 

(3) To increase the total or potential supply of plant food which 
may be drawn upon later. 

By careful handling of manures from 60 to 85 per cent of the fer- 
tilizing constituents contained in the food stuffs fed to animals can 
be returned to the soil. Thus, the value of manures as a source of 
plant food is at once obvious. The importance of manures as a source 
of humus is well shown by an experiment at the Minnesota Station,''* 
where two plots, originally sirnilar, were cropped in the same manner 
except that one was manured and the other was not. At the end 
of 35 years the first contained 3.32 per cent of humus and a water- 
holding capacity of 48 per cent, while the second contained 1.8 per 
cent humus and could hold but 39 per cent of moisture. 

In connection with the Illinois experiments just referred to, a 
system of "live stock farming" is being studied, in which manure was 
applied to the plots each year in proportion to the crop yields the 

*The Department of Soils at the Iowa Experiment Station are carrying on a like experiment. 
To date the yields of corn indicate that cow peas thus grown in com reduces the yield from 
eight to ten bushels per acre. 
**Minii(sot!i Bullotin Xo. 89. 



Corn and 
oat 

rotation 
undesirable 



Manure 
should 
be returned 
to the soil 



Corn 
responds 
liberally to 
an application 
of manure 



98 



CORN. 



Manure 

adds 

humus 



previous year. For the years 1905, 1906 and 1907, manure was ap 
plied to plots similar to those used in the "grain farming" experi- 
ment, with the result of raising the average yield to 81 bushels per 
acre, as compared with 69 bushels without the manure and 35 bushels 
for continuous corn. 

Results equally favorable for barnyard manure have been obtained 
by the Iowa Station on the Missouri Loess soils of that state.* 







Fig. 22. 

CORN WHICH SHOWS THE EFFECT OF A PREVIOUS LEQUMINOUS CROP. 

Note the rank growth and straightness of the stalks. 

At the Minnesota Station** a four and a five-year rotation, which 
included corn, oats, clover, wheat, and barley, were compared with 
the continuous growing of each of the cereals mentioned. Manure 
was applied to the corn in the rotations, but the continuous cropping 
plots received none. The experiment was continued for twelve years. 
Excessive losses of humus and nitrogen, together with decreasing crop 
yields, were found on each of the continuous cropping plots, while on 
the manured rotation plots the yields and humus and nitrogen sup- 

*Iowa Bulletin No. 96. 
**Minnesota Bulletin No. 89. 



FERTILIZERS. 



99 



plies were maintained and in one case slightly increased. The corn 
in the rotation yielded 20 bushels per acre more than that grown on 
the plot which grew corn exclusively and continuously. 

FERTILIZERS. It is probable that at the present time it would 
not prove profitable to use commercial fertilizers for the production 
of corn on the soil of the corn belt west of Illinois. There may be a 
few restricted areas, such as peaty swamp soils which would require 
potassium, and a few acid soils which should be limed, to which this 
rule does not apply. However, the investigations of several of the 
Experiment Stations* of this region would seem to support such 
a statement. But that does not mean that these soils are inexhaus- 
tible or that the methods of cropping now commonly in vogue can be 
safely continued indefinitely. By these same methods much of the 
land of the eastern states has been reduced to a condition where ex- 
pensive fertilizers must be used. Even in Illinois, Dr. Hopkins has 
proved that large areas of soil require the application of phosphorus. 
Chemical analyses of some Iowa soils show that their supply of 
that element is by no means inexhaustible. Already, on many soils, 
in practically every community of the corn belt, the effects of an 
insufficient humus and nitrogen supply are seen in lessened crop 
yields. If many of the present methods of handling such soils are 
not soon radically revised, the day of the commercial fertilizer cannot 
be long postponed. 

It is much easier and vastly more economical to maintain the pro- 
ductivity of a fertile soil than to build up an exhausted one. By the 
adoption of a proper rotation including leguminous crops and supple- 
mented by barnyard manures, the time when it will be necessary to 
use commercial fertilizers can be indefinitely postponed on the greater 
part of the corn belt land west of Illinois. The work of the Minne- 
sota Station has shown that by such means the expensive nitrogen 
and the humus supplies can be maintained and even increased. 

A ROTATION FOR THE CORN BELT. Throughout the 
greater part of this region the most profitable cereal crop that can be 
grown on fertile soil is corn. The problem of a rotation, then, is how 
to secure the largest area for that crop consistent with the maintenance 
or improvement of the fertility of the soil. A four-year rotation that 
answers these requirements and one that is being widely practiced is 
two years of corn, followed by small grain the third year, and clover 
the fourth. The clover is seeded with the small grain. The manure 

♦Minnesota Bulletin No. 89. 
Minnesota Bulletin No. 94. 
Iowa BuUein Xo. 96. 
Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 
Indiana Bulletin No. 88. 



Intelligent 
farming 
can ward 
off the 
use of 
fertilizers 



Rotation 

of 

crops and 

live stock 

farming 

maintain 

fertility 



100 



CORN. 



I 



produced should be returned to the soil, preferably on the clover stub- 
ble just before plowing for corn, and as much as possible of the stalks 
and straw should be plowed under. 



1 908 - CORM 


1908 - 


CORN 


1 90 9 • CO RN 


1 309 


OATS 


1 910 - ATS 


1310 


- CLOVER 


ISM - C LOVER 


19 11 


•CORN 


1908 - OATS 


r 308 


CLOVER 


1909 CLOVER 


• 30S 


CORN 


19 10 - COR W 






3 1 


■CORN 
-OATS 


1 9 1 1 ■ CORN 


YARDS 


191 i 




BUILO 1 NCS 








r Tc 







CT^ 



ROAD 



The diagram here given shows in a very simple way the outline 
and position of a suggested crop rotation. The name of each crop 
appears opposite the year in which it is grown on that field. The 
purpose of this explanation is to point out more clearly the steps to 
be followed in a system of rotation. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We wish to express our apprecia- 
tion of the interested co-operation of the Weather and Crop Service 
Bureau of Iowa, which in the person of George M. Chappel furnished 
unhesitatingly much of the information in this chapter. 

Several students of the Department have worked faithfully in 
arranging these charts. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Iowa Climate and Crops, 

Iowa Year Book of Agriculture, 1903, pp. 121-157. 
Relation of Precipitation to Yield of Corn, - 

J. Warren Smith, Year Book U. S. Department of Agri-l 
culture, 1903. 
The Experiment Stations and Corn Culture, 

J. I. Schulte in Am. Rep. 1904, Office Experiment Station, 
P. S. Department of Agriculture. 
Influence of Environment or. the Chemical Composition of 
Plants, 

Wiley, Year Book U. S. Department, 1901, pp. 299-318. 



COLLATERAL READING. 101 

Indian Corn, 

Bulletin No. 147, Kansas Experiment Station. 
Effect of Manures upon Composition of Corn, 

Connecticut Experiment Station Report 1895, page 125, 
1896, page 315. 
Practices in Crop Rotation, 

Year Book U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902, pp. 
519-532. 
Thirty Years of Crop Rotation, 

Illinois Station Bulletin No. 125. 
Soil Areas of Iowa, 

Iowa Station Bulletin No. 82. 
Maintenance of Soil Fertility, 

Iowa Station Bulletin No. 96. 
Studies of Rotations, Humus, Etc., 

Minnesota Station Bulletins Nos. 89-94. 
Various Articles in Fifteenth Biennial Report of Kansas State 

Board of Agriculture, 1905-6, pp. 1-242. 
Cereals of America, 

Hunt, Chapter XII. 
Reports of Iowa Weather and Crop Service, 

Iowa Year Books of Agriculture. 
Effect of Certain Methods of Soil Treatment Upon the Corn 
Crop, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 54. 
Climatic Studies with Wheat, Corn and Oats, 

North Dakota Bulletin No. 47. 
Corn, Meterology, Soil Temperature, 

Alabama Bulletin No. 10. 
Co-operative Soil Tests of Corn, 

Alabama Bulletin No. 59. 
Comparative Yield of Corn from Seed Grown in Difforcnt 
Latitudes, 

Arkansas Bulletin No. 59. 
Adaptation of Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 244. 
Continuous Corn Culture, 

Rhode Island Bulletin No. 113. 
Corn and Wheat. I'ertilizer Tests with 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 94. 
Corn, Field Experiments with Fertilizers, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 55. 
Experiments with Com in Wisconsin on Sandy Soil, 

Wisconsin Bulletin No. 147. 
Corn, Results of Fertilizer Experiments with 

Wisconsin Bulletin No. 147. 



CHAPTER VI 



SELECTION AND PREPARATION OF SEED 
CORN FOR PLANTING 



Virgin 
Sou 



Causes 

of 
Poor 
Stand 



Corn 

adapted 

to your 

own 

locality 



Results of 

County 

stations 



The soil of the corn belt has a high productive power due very 
largely, if not entirely, to its virgin fertility. The system of crop 
rotation heretofore practiced, including the application of manure, has 
not in general added to the original potential supply of plant food. 
The season is usually sufficiently long to mature the crop. More im- 
proved methods of culture are adopted each year. Grow^ers are recog- 
nizing that weeds in corn are not conducive to high yields. The 
ground is kept in better physical condition and abundant moisture is 
conserved. Yet the average yield per acre for the heaviest corn- 
producing States, Iowa, Illinois, Nebraska, Kansas and Missouri was 
respectively 39.5, 36.1, 34.1, 28.9 and 32.3 bushels for 1906. In 1907 
the yield was even lower, being respectively 29.5, 36, 24, 22.1, 31. 

Assume that all the corn in these States was planted with a 3 foot, 
6 inch planter, which would make 3,556 hills or 10,668 stalks to the 
acre, providing three kernels grew in each hill. A yield of 38 bushels 
means one 12-ounce ear in each hill. Therefore, the corn growers of 
these States either have but one-third of a stand, or else two stalks 
in each hill are barren. Upon these two points (poor stand and its 
causes and the elimination of the unproductive stalk), the discussion 
of the selection and care of seed corn will be based. 

BUYING FOREIGN SEED. By all means, do not omit picking 
seed corn this fall with the idea that in the spring you will purchase 
entirely new seed and start in the business right. Seed grown in a 
different section of the corn belt, on dissimilar soil, is not sure the 
first year or two under new environment. There is no corn so adpated 
to a given locality as corn which has been successfully grown in that 
locality for a period of years. 

The results of three years of trial (1905, 1906, 1907) at County Ex- 
periment Stations located on the county farms in different parts of 
the State of Iowa are very striking on the point of buying foreign 
seed. There were 39 experiments in all. The corn from the "deal- 



HARVESTING SEED CORN. 



103 



ers" (large seed companies who catalog their sales) was secured by 
purchasing from them small quantities of seed through some farmer 
in the vicinity of each county farm. The term "outside breeders" 
refers to corn growers who make a specialty of good seed corn. This 
was bought in small quantities. The quality was the same as that 
which was being sold to farmer customers. The corn from the "farm- 
ers" was secured directly from the planter box or sack in the field the 
day that the farmer was planting. 

The table here shown gives the summary for the State. , 

Source of Seed. 

Farmers 1,028 samples 

Dealers 137 " 

Outside Breeders 87 

Farmers' Average Yield 61.9 Bu. Per Acre 

Outside Breeders' Average Yield 59.5 " " " 

Dealers' Average Yield 53.0 " " " 

Eighty-five Highest Farmers' Average Yield. 73. 2 " " " 

Eighty-five Lowest Farmers' Average Yield. 47. 7 " " " 

HARVESTING SEED CORN.— The Time. October loth has 
been named by the Iowa Grain Dealers' Association, at the sugges- 
tion of Professor P. G. Holden of the Iowa State College, as the seed 
date for gathering seed corn. *For a period of thirty years the aver- harvest 
age date of the first killing frost in the fall in Iowa is October 8th. 
To set a definite day as "Harvest Day" for the entire corn belt 
is impossible. Its significance lies simply in the suggestion. But 
the farmer who has learned through experience and observation 
in his locality, can forecast frost fairly accurately. The only 
thing then is to pick seed before the cold freezing weather comes on. 
When going into the field early in the fall, before any hard frosts 
have come, it will generally be found that the corn as a whole is im- 
mature ; yet on examination an occasional ear here and there will be 
seen with its husks turning brown. These, when pulled back, reveal 
an ear in the dent stage, firm and ready to be picked for seed, while 
right in the same hill another ear having had an equal opportunity is 
still in a very immature state. This is the time to select the large,, 
early, well-matured seed ears, instead of waiting until later (husking 
time for example), when it is impossible to distinguish between th« 
early and late maturing corn. This may be done the latter part of Maturity 
September. Maturity slwuld never he sacri/iced for size of ear. There consideratior 
are plenty of good sized ears that mature in the corn belt, but they can 
only be properly found by selecting them early in the field. 

*Geo. M. Chappel, Iowa Crop Service. 



104 



CORN. 



Immature 

corn 

shrivels 



Selecting 

the 

ears in 

the field 



The corn will shrivel to a greater extent when gathered early, if 
picked too immature, and the kernels will have a tendency to be 
starchy. This practice continued from year to year will tend to pro- 
duce an early maturing corn. Good ears may be selected at husking 
time later in the autumn, but they should be stored separately and 
very thoroughly tested. 

The Method. In case the farmer has no "Selection Bed" in 
which has been planted the best and earliest maturing ears, it is then 
necessary that seed ears be selected from the general field. The most 
practical method by which this is done is to take a sack and go through 
the field, before the hard frosts have come on and select the choicest, 
best matured ears. As many as three or four rows may be observed 
on the way through. Every well-formed, breedy looking ear of good 
size and well matured, at this time may be considered valuable for 
seed purposes, and from twelve to fourteen ears are sufficient for the 
planting of an acre. From three to five bushels of corn is as much as 
may be expected to be found in a single day. These bushels, how- 
ever, will contain the most valuable seed ears that the field has to 
ofifer. A small plot of selected corn simplifies this process, as the best 
ears may then be found in a comparatively small area. 




(Courtesy Funk Bros.) 



Fig. 23. 

THE PICKING SQUAD. 

Gathering seed corn in the field. 



HARVESTING SEED CORN. 



105 



During" this process, consideration of the strength and character 
of the parent stalk, height of the ear and size of the shank should be 
noted. The characteristics are 
quite generally reprotluced. The 
stalk should be of good size at the 
base, gradually tapering, not nec- 
essarily tall. Strong, vigorous 
stalks of medium height, in gen- 
eral produce the best ears. The 
largest, best formed, and to a 
large degree, the earliest matur- 
ing ears, will be found at a me- 
dium height. The shank should 
be of medium size and of sufficient 




^] 1 

(Courtesy Successful Farm- 
ing) FiR. 24 
GOOD AND BAD STALKS. 
No. 1 is an illustration of 
a good stalk, well bal- 
anced, the ear about four 
feet from the ground, 
well set and drooped suf- 
ficiently to shed the rain. 
No. 2 shows a rather 
weak stalk with long 
.ioints and the ear set 
too high and much too 
near the top. 

farmer should gather twice as 
his fields the year following. 



Km 


1 


M^^K^^^SKb. 


P 




i C: 


n ^B ^^ 



(Courtesy Successful Farming) 

Fig. 25 

BAD METHOD OF STORING 
SEED CORN. 
The ears are too close together for 
good circulation of air, conse- 
quently there is danger of mould- 
ing and that it will not be suf- 
ficiently dried out to prevent freez- 
ing. It is much easier way to tie 
with a string, as shown by Fig. 27. 
If the string method of tying is 
followed, a good circulation of air 
is afforded and the ears dry out 
properly. What must be avoided 
is freezing of the corn before it is 
dried out. The above is a common 
method employed by many farmers 
in the corn belt in drying their 
seed corn, and may result in mouldy 
corn, especially if stored in this 
way during a damp or wet fall. 



length that the ear may hang with 
tip down. It is also well to note 
whether the stalks about it are 
strong, or are barren and dwarfe 1. 
If the ear seems to be very ripe, 
look out, the stalk may be dis- 
eased. As a general rule, the 
much seed as will be required to plant 



106 



CORN. 



STORING SEED CORN.— The Method. The early pioneers in 
corn culture generally tied two ears together by the supple husks 



Free 

circulation 

of 

air 

around 

corn 




(Courtesy Successful Farming) Fig. 26. 

Ears tied too closely together on string for best results. A common 
error in storing seed corn when string method is employed. 

and hung them over a wire or rail. Others stripped all the husks 
off, tied two or more ears together and hung them up. With the 
increased interest in seed corn, many dealers thought that they had 
hit upon an ideal plan when the light wooden racks were built and 
the ears laid in tiers horizontally. But, because of the moisture 
and the subsequent heating, the kernels were either molded or 
sprouted. Seed corn which has just been husked requires just one 
thing. It must have a very free circulation of cdr at ordinary 
temperatures. That is to say, each ear must have access to a 
complete circulation of air in order that its excess of contained mois- 
ture may evaporate rapidly enough to prevent fungus growths and 
chemical changes in the kernels. 

Different Experiment Stations recommend several devices and 
methods which accomplish the desired results with varying degrees 
of satisfaction. Wire racks with both horizontal and vertical strands, 
thus separating each ear into a sort of pigeonhole, are made by some 
manufacturers and sold on the market. Some farmers drive spikes at 
an angle through a two-by-four and simply slip an ear over each spike. 



STORING SEED CORN. 



107 




\ 



Fitt. -i' 

SKKD CORN HUNG IT BY TWINK ON WIRKS 

There is plenty of nxjin for the moisture in ears to escape 

^^^ The method which 

has proved of the 
highest efficiency at 
the Iowa Experiment 
Station and which is 
being rapidly adopt- 
ed by the farmers of 
the state, is suspend- 
ing from the ceihng 
or rafters ten or 
more ears, each 
looped at about the 
middle on a single or 
double strand of 
binding twine. For 
corn which is meant 
for show, suspension 
from both ends of 
the ear is more satis- 
factory because then each ear holds its straight form. The circulation 
of air is unhindered, and the method is very practical. Moreover, the 
damage by mice is slig'ht because the corn cannot be easily reached. 
Especially is this so if the binding twine be tied to a wire which 
may be suspended from rafter to rafter. 



>'?# «y#irie « <i 9 ^ ^_ «r r o^ 



^ rs ^-e <?^ <3^ #> ^ ^T^flFVl' 



(Courtesy L'lbrich Seed Corn Tester Co.) 
Fig. 98 

A METHOD OF STORING SEED CORN WHICH ADMITS THE 
FREE CIRCULATION OF AIR ABOUT THE EARS 



lOS 



CORN. 




LAYING IN THE FIRST EAR* 



This method, known as the double string method of tying up seed 
corn, is rapid and efficient. Note that the strings held in the left 
hand are longer than those in the right. Also that the strings in the 
right hand are held wider apart. As the strings pass around the ear 
they are about equal distant from butt and tip. 

*The plan of stringins seed cirn is callfid to the attention of the authors just as the book )« 
going to press. It is tha most rapid and economical method we have ever seen. Suggested by 
A. C. Ruppel and E. B. Arnold, students at the Iowa State Colllege. 



STORING SEED CORN. 



109 



) 




LAYING IN THE SECOND EAR 

The first car is held securely between the feet. The right hand and 
strings are passed through between those held in the left, leaving a 
place in which to lay the second ear. Notice that the second ear is 
reversed, butt for tip. Care should be exercised to keep the strings 
equal distant from the tip and butt of each ear. Always hold the 
string tight. 



no 



CORN. 




LAYING IN THE LAST EAR 

The left hand strings are still a little longer than those of the right. 
The first ear is still securely held between the feet. The string is 
tight and plenty ofair space is present between the ears. The ears are 
woven in by the strings. No knots have been tied. The weight of 
the ears bind the strings closely to the ears. 



STORING SEED CORN. 



Ill 



I 

I 




READY FOR HANGING 

The longer string is looped through the shorter. No knot is ne- 
cessary if the corn is to be hung up immediately. If, however, the 
ten ears are to be laid down on the floor again, a second hitch of the 
longer string through the shorter will be necessary to prevent the 
ears from slipping out of their places. In case it is desired to suspend 
twenty ears from one point, the second string is looped through the 
longer string of the first ten, and the process of weaving is continued. 



112 



CORN. 




TAKING OUT THE EARS 

The hitch and loop which were made in the string previous to 
hanging, are unloosed. The lower ear of the ten is grasped, thus In- 
verting all the ears. The weaving process is reversed. One by or.e 
the ears drop from their places by their own weight. 



STORING SEED CORN. 



113 



Seed may be left hanging until spring, but if the mice are not In 
evidence it is better to take the ears down and store them in racks pe^o'd^of 
after the fall winds have thoroughly dried out the excess moisture. storage 

The first four weeks is the critical period of storage. Seed corn 
selected in the field in the fall of 1906 on the following dates, showed 
a very high percentage of moisture. 



Date 



Kernels 



Cob 



September 14 
September 21 
September 28 
October 5 . . . . 
October 12 . . 
October 19 . . . 
October 26 . . . 
November 2 . 



41.78 


Per 


cent 


1 58.58 Per cent 


37.35 






57.17 


33.04 






55.86 


28.52 






52.28 


25.97 






49.05 


20.15 






40.99 


22.09 






37.24 


17.83 






26.82 



The above table taken from the thesis of E. L. Morris and O. A. 
Cohagan (1907), shows the large amount of water present in early 
gathered seed corn. It shows that the cob contains the greater per- 
cent of the moisture and that the 
cob is also much slower in losing 
this water. Up to November 2d 
the cob was very heavy and damp, 
the pith cells being quite turgid. 



HUB AftH^.flUUI iji A uA ii'' 




ffT^i-r^nn^^ 





The Place. Unless the small 



Hanging 
over 
oat bin 

grain has been threshed early in objection- 
^ ■' able 

the season and has had time to 
cool oflf after the sweating pro- 
cess, do not hang the seed corn 
over the oat bin in the granary. 
Furthermore, the ordinary gran- 
ary has hardly enough direct ven- 
tilation to dry out the newly gath- 
ered corn before colder weather. 
A double corn crib, with a sort 
of garret fixed over the drive, is 
almost an ideal place for the dry- 
ing of early picked corn, as the 
wind has free access to the ears 
and a thorough drying is soon 
effected. 



FiR. 29 
SEED EARS STORED UPRIGHT. 



The attic over the living room 
is often advocated as the best poor*" ^" 
place for seed corn storage. Early in the season, when the ears are ^«°*"a«°° 
sappy and require the circulation of air, the ordinary attic has too 



114 CORN. 



* 



few windows and the temperature is usually so high that mold or 
germination often results. 

Corn which has been dried thoroughly need not be moved from 
the granary or loft because of cold weather. But to be safe, seed 
so stored is better placed in the attic when the lower temperature of 
winter comes on. On the ordinary farm, the seed corn store room 
or separate building has not come to be a permanent fixture. When 
much seed is sold, such a building is almost necessary. 

Mr. D. S. Bustamante, in his thesis for Master's Degree in Agricul- 
A test at ture, while at the Iowa State College, stored corn during the fall of 
* ^ stale 1906 in the following places which are described by him. Ninety ears 
couege ^gj-g gathered on October 20th, just before the killing frost occurred. 
They were stored in nine lots of ten ears each, as follows. The aver- 
age humidity and average temperature for the entire period is also 
given. 

1. Attic of 'a dwelling house, ears tied up in strings and 
hung from the roof; 47 humidity, 42 temperature. 

2. Farm Crops Laboratory, ears tied up in strings and hung; 
26 humidity, 68 temperature. 

3. Cellar of Agricultural Hall basement, ears placed in a 
small box surrounded by screens and placed above the heating 
pipes; 82.3 humidity, 52 temperature. 

4. Green House, ears placed in a box, and this over the 
radiators; 22.5 humidity, 107 temperature. 

5. Dairy Cold Storage, ears placed in a bag and this in the 
cold storage. No particular aim was had to cool the place to 
low temperatures. humidity, temperature. 

6. Pump Cellar, ears tied up in strings and hung right over 
the pump, where water was more or less present in the ground ; 
63.5 humidity, 33.5 temperature. 

7. Outside and inside, ears were tied up in strings and placed 
alternately one week outside and another week in the attic of the 
house; 67 humidity, 40.2 temperature. 

8. Outside, ears were tied up in strings and hung outside, but 
protected from rain or snow; 71 humidity, 18 temperature. 

9. Closed box, ears were tightly packed in a small box and 
a board nailed over it so that circulation of air was almost ab- 
sent ; humidity, temperature. 

Thermometers and hygrometers were kept in the corn in seven 
places and the temperature and humidity recorded daily, from which 



EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING. 115 

the above averages were taken. The conclusions drawn by Mr. Buste- 
mante from this extended test are here given. 

1. High temperatures and low humidity, as were the condi- 
tions in the green house, are detrimental to the vitality of seed 
corn. 

2. Low humidity and average room temperature, as illus- 
trated from the results obtained from corn stored in the Farm 
Crops laboratory, are also injurious to the seed. 

3. High humidity and somewhat low temperatures are not so 
detrimental to corn as somewhat high temperatures and low hu- 
midity as shown by the results of corn stored in basement of 
Agricultural building. 

4. Average humidity with low temperature, as shown by 
results of corn stored outside, show less ill effects than high hu- 
midity and low temperatures. 

5. Average humidity and average temperature, aided by good 
ventilation, as illustrated by results of corn stored in the attic, 
gave the best results. 

6. The amount of moisture present in the corn and that 
present in the atmosphere, have more influence on the vitality 
of the seed than the degree of temperature. 

THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON THE 
VITALITY OF CORN 

The purpose of this experiment was to determine just what cfifcct 
freezing would have upon corn which was air dry and that containing with 
different percentages of moisture. and its 

cffcctis oil 

Ears 1-5 were soaked in water at ordinary temperatures for five seed com 
hours. 

Ears 6-10 6 hours 

Ears 11-15 7 hours 

Ears 16-20 8 hours 

Ears 21-25 5 hours 

Ears 26-30 6 hours 

Ears 31-35 7 hours 

Ears 36-40 8 hours 

Immediately after being taken from the water, the ears numbering 
I to 20 were placed in a refrigerator plant where the temperature 
varied from 12 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit above zero. Here they were 
left for 76 hours. Ears 21-30 were left under ordinary room tempera- 
tures for 52 hours and were then frozen for 24 hours. Ears 31-40 



116 



CORN. 



were not frozen at all, but were left in a room at 70 degrees Fahren- 
heit. 

*The kernels were afterward taken from each ear and analyzed for 
moisture as well as given a germination test. The following table 
shows the average percentage of moisture and the percentage of 
germination before and after the treatment, with the consequent loss 
in vitality. 



Number of ear 



Percent of 
moisture 



Percent of Percent of 

perfect vitality i perfect vitality 
before treating 1 after treating 



Amount of 

loss 



Percent 
loss of 
vitality 



1- 5 
6-10 
11-15 
16-20 
21-30 
31-40 



22.3 
23.5 
29.8 
30.0 
31.2 
27.3 



88.3 
91.7 
68.2 
84.7 
97.4 
89.9 



28.3 
46.6 
26.4 
44.9 
61.6 
82.3 



60.0 
45.1 
41.8 
39.8 
35.8 
07.6 



69.0 
49.2 
61.3 
47.0 
35.7 
08.4 








Fig. 32. 

THE EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING UPON THE 

VITALITY OF CORN. 
The numbers above untreated correspond to those below -which 
were treated. 



^Research by W. F. Schnaidt. 



EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND FREEZING. 117 

Conclusions : 

1. When very full of moisture, even freezing for a short time 
is detrimental. 

2. Excessive moisture when not attended with low tempera- 
tures, also weakens vitality. 

Mr. L. C. Burnett, in his thesis for Master's Degree in Agriculture 
at the Iowa State College, found the following results in germination 
tests with seed corn stored in the places herein named. 

Percent Kernels Germinating. 
Strong 

1. Seedroom 95.0 

2. Garret (kitchen) 92.5 

3. Tool Shed (closed) ....91.7 

4. Tool Shed (open) 91.7 

5. Hung outdoors 85.4 

6. Dry garret 83.3 

7. Furnace room 79.6 

8. Cellar (not dry) 75.0 

9. Hay mow 58.3 

ID. Shock (outside) 57.3 

11. Hanging on stalk 55.0 

12. Lying on ground 46.7 

13. Shock (center) 43.0 

14. Cellar (very wet) 40.0 

Corn stored dry vs. corn stored just as it comes from the field. 



Do-Corn = I sx-S c 1 £ 

Stored Field Corn S £ = c ?! 2^ 

December iSd Stored Oct. 3d t%°v^'ji'a 

Place of Storage Strong Weak Bad Strong We ak Bad 

Open Shed 91.7 8.3 ... 91.7 8^3 



Weak 


Bad 


3-3 


17 


7-5 




6.6 


17 


8.3 




8-3 


6.3 


16.7 




18.5 


1.9 


233 


17 


41.7 




20.0 


22.7 


15.0 


30.0 


25.0 


28.3 


20.0 


370 


517 


8.3 



Hay Mow 70.0 30.0 ... 58.3 41.7 ... 11.7 

Holden's Cellar 64.0 27.5 8.3 75.0 23.3 1.7 11.0 loss6.6 

Test made April 30, 1906. 

The table shows that the damp cellar kills six and six-tenths per 
cent of the corn placed in it, even after the corn was thoroughly dried 
out. The temperature in the cellar w^as never below freezing. 



118 CORN. 

Tliere was an actual, gain in the figures for the corn that remained 

outside in the shed. If it can be considered that no loss was incurred 

there after January i, 1906, we may conclude from this that the frost 

does not injure dry corn. 
Effect 

of . We may also conclude that moisture injures the vitality of corn, 

drying on evcn if the temperature does not fall below the freezing point. From 

seed corn ^ ° ^ 




Fig. 33. 
THE RESULT OF STRONG AND WEAK SEED. 
Tlie kernels in each case were planted at the same time. 
Germination with one was strong and vigorous, with 
the other the plant was always weak and developed 
a very small root system. 

the results of the second table, we may conclude that early and rapid 
drying of seed increases its ability to withstand not only frost, but 
also moisture. 



NEED OF TESTING SEED CORN. 



119 



THE NEED OF TESTING SEED CORN. Corn which has been 
stored properly through the winter season is often thought to need 
no testing. But the high price of land and the incumbent risk in 
planting untested seed, demands a more definite knowledge of its 
germinating ability. 

The following tables are taken from the thesis of Mr. Burnett. The 
tests include 1,570 samples. The reason for inserting the results in 
detail is that the figures represent tests from all parts of the state, 
which shows the variations in conditions in each county. To students 
and farmers of Iowa these figures are especially significant. 



TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE TEST— NORTHERN SECTION. 



County 


Number 
Patrons 


Samples 


Per Cent 
Strong 


Per Cent 
Weak 


Per Cent 
Worthless 


Allamakee 


3 

10 

5 

9 

19 

11 

17 

13 

4 

10 

15 

4 

4 

10 

7 

14 

16 

13 

11 

5 

12 
38 
6 
16 
19 
6 

11 
17 
21 

7 
13 

5 
10 
25 


8 
14 

5 
12 
23 
11 
19 
15 

5 
10 
21 

5 

8 
14 

7 
15 
20 
14 
15 

6 

15 
44 

6 
17 
19 

6 
14 
20 
23 
12 
18 

6 
14 
29 


70.5 
71.9 
71.5 
58.0 
64.0 
67.7 
69.1 
66.4 
63.6 
67.6 
73.8 
59.6 
57.7 
62.0 
67.7 
60.9 
71.7 
66.8 
67.7 
56.7 
66.1 
70.3 
62.7 
64.6 
68.3 
70.3 
64.9 
70.4 
65.3 
61.0 
70.3 
78.3 
69.7 
68.1 


11.8 
11.3 
15.0 
20.4 
16.8 
7.6 
12.5 
18.1 
17.2 
12.0 
13.7 
18.4 
17.8 
12.3 
11.4 
16.8 
14.2 

1 13.3 
16.1 
19.3 
14.9 
16.6 
18.3 

1 16.4 
17.0 
12.1 
16.3 
14.7 
15.8 
16.8 
13.1 

1 10.7 
14.3 

1 16.3 


17.7 


Black Hawk 


16.8 


Bremer 


13.5 


Buchanan 


21.6 


Buena Vista 


19.2 


Butler 


24.7 


Cerro Gordo 


18.4 


Cherokee 


14.5 


Chickasaw 


19.2 


Clay 


20.4 


Clayton 


12.5 


Delaware 


22.0 


Dickinson 


24.5 


Dubuque 


25.7 


Emmett 


20.9 


Fayette 


22.3 


Floyd 


14.7 


Franklin 


20 


Hancock 


16.2 


Howard 


24.0 


Humboldt 


19.0 


Kossuth 


13.1 


Lvon 


19.0 


Mitchell 


19.0 


O'Brien 


14.7 


Osceola 


17.6 


Palo Alto 


18.8 


Pocahontas 


14.9 


Plymouth 


1 18.9 


Sioux 


22.2 


Winnebago 


16.6 


Winneshiek 


11.0 


Worth 


16.0 


Wright 


15.1 







120 CORN. 

TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE TEST- 



-CENTRAL SECTION. 



County 


Number 
Patrons 


Samples 


Percent 
Strong 


Percent 
Weak 


Percent 
Worthl'ss 


Audubon 


12 
21 

7 
12 
23 
30 
15 
10 
23 
10 
13 

7 
22 
17 
10 
11 

9 

8 
19 
20 
19 
18 
14 
11 
14 

4 

8 
21 
20 
12 
40 

9 
28 
37 


18 
27 

9 
18 
29 
39 
23 
10 
35 
11 
18 

7 
26 
21 
18 
12 
13 

8 
26 
32 
22 
24 
20 
15 
21 

9 

9 
28 
22 
15 
54 
13 
35 
44 


71.0 
73.7 
59.0 
72.2 
68.7 
66.6 
69.6 
71.6 
72.6 
74.0 
75.0 
68.0 
66.6 
66.5 
79.6 
69.2 
74.3 
68.0 
71.0 
76.0 
67.3 
77.1 
76.1 
75.7 
72.8 
79.5 
72.4 
67.2 
66.6 
66.4 
66.8 
68.1 
69.8 
63.9 


15.2 
15.8 
17.8 
16.4 
15.0 
17.9 
18.6 
17.8 
15.2 
16.1 
14.1 
17.1 
17.0 
15.1 
12.5 
16.0 
13.4 
16.1 
15.2 
14.0 
17.3 
15.1 
17.9 
15.6 
15.8 
16.1 
15.6 
13.4 
20.6 
11.0 
15.4 
15.6 
14.1 
17.0 


13 8 


Benton 


10 5 


Boone 


23 2 


Calhoun 


11 4 


Carroll | 

Cedar 

Clinton 


16.3 
15.3 
11 8 


Crawford 


10.6 


Dallas 

Greene 


12.2 
9.9 


Grundy 


11.0 


Guthrie 


14.9 


Hamilton 


16.4 


Hardin 

Harrison 


18.9 
7.9 


Ida 


11.8 


Iowa 

Jackson 


12.3 
15.9 


Jasper 


13.8 


Johnson 


10.0 


Jones 


15.4 


Linn 


12.8 


Marshall 


16.0 


Monona 


8.7 


Muscatine 


11.4 


Polk 


4.4 


Poweshiek 


12.0 


Sac 


19.4 


Scott 


12.8 


Shelby 


12.6 


Story 


17.8 


Tama 


16.3 


Webster 


16.1 


Woodbury 


19.1 







NEED OF TESTING SEED CUKN. 
TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE TEST— SOUTHERN SECTION. 



121 



County 



Number 
Pa t roll .s 



Samples 



Percent 
Strong 



Percent 
Weak 



[ Percent 
Worthl 'ss 



Adair , 

Adams 

Appanoose . . . 

Cass 

Clark 

Davis 

Decatur 

Des Moines . . 

Fremont 

Henry 

Jefferson 

Keokuk 

Lee 

Louisa 

Lucas 

Madison 

Mahaska 

Marion 

Mills 

Monroe 

Montgomery . 

Page 

Pottawattamie 

Ringgold 

Taylor 

Union 

Van Buren . . . 

Wapello 

Warren 

Washington . . 
Wayne 



6 
3 
4 

12 
3 
5 
5 

14 

11 

13 

22 

12 

16 

3 

8 

13 

13 

6 

2 

7 

9 

17 

4 

6 

7 

4 

4 

4 

13 

16 



7 
3 
5 

15 
3 
7 
7 

14 

12 

14 

27 

17 

22 

3 

8 

16 

17 

9 

2 

10 

10 

18 

5 

9 

10 

6 

5 

5 

18 

21 



66.6 
79.3 
67.6 
70.6 
70.0 
77.0 
58.6 
70.4 

69.8 
71.1 
74.8 
72.5 
69.4 
71.3 
76.2 
70.2 
70.8 
72.4 
85.0 
75.8 
68.8 
72.1 
70.0 
70.7 
71.4 
71.0 
72.2 
71.2 
71.4 
72.7 



20.0 
13.4 
18.9 
17.9 
12.0 
15.3 
18.0 
15.2 

18.0 
16.2 
13.9 
16.0 
17.3 
18.7 
12.3 
14.7 
15.5 
17.6 
11.0 
10.0 
16.8 
16.8 
16.0 
17.5 
14.2 
15.2 
14.8 
13.6 
15.6 
15.6 



13.4 
7.3 
13.5 
11.5 
18.0 
7.7 
23.4 
14.4 

12.2 
12.7 
11.3 
11.5 
13.3 
10.0 
11.5 
15.1 
13.7 
10.0 
4.0 
15.0 
14.4 
11.0 
14.0 
11.8 
14.4 
13.8 
13.2 
15.2 
13.0 
11.8 



The Extension Department of the Iowa State Colleg^e, during the 
early spring of 1907. te:-ted at their county stations in seven countieS; 
a total of 397 samples of seed corn collected from the planter boxf-s 
of the farmers of those counties. The following tables represent the 
results obtained : 



A fair 
lest 



GERMINATION. 



County 


Number of 
Siimples 


Percent Strong Percent Weak 


Percent Bad 


Sioux 


49 
56 
55 
60 
59 
56 
62 


50.9 
58.2 
76.6 
66.2 
63.4 
75.2 
63.1 
Av. 65.0 


27.2 
32.6 
13.2 
23.3 
26.6 
16.0 
27.7 
Av. 23.8 


21.9 
9.1 
10.1 
10.5 
10 


Storv 


Marshall 


Montgomery 

Page 


Henry 


8 8 


Cedar 


9 2 


Total 1 


397 1 


Av. 11.2 



122 



CORN. 



Poor Stand is Conducive to Low Yield. In tests made at the county 
stations of the Extension Department of the Iowa State College, as re- 
gards the relation of stand to yield, the following very striking re- 
sults were obtained. The samples were sent in by the farmers and 
planted in plots containing 210 hills each. The standard taken was 
three stalks to the hill. An accurate acount was kept of the stand 
and yield per plot. Afterwards the basis of an acre was figured for 
tabulation. 





SIOUX COUNTY, 1906. 










Number of the 


Percent 


Bushels 






Sample 


stand 


Per .■\cre 


lu highest 


yielding samples 


G4 


78.1 


86.0 




- 


G5 


64.8 


85.3 






30 


87.6 


84.0 






7 


85.4 


82.6 






10 


88.8 


80.8 






8 


89.4 


80.1 






34 


78.7 


78.1 






21 


84.6 


78.0 






63 


92.4 


77.2 






44 


87.3 


74.8 






Average, 


83.7 


80.7 





Number of the 


Percent 


Bushels 




Sample 


Stand 


Per Acre 


10 lowest yielding samples 


02 


43.8 


46.7 




60 


79.1 


47.4 




1 


54.8 


51.3 




22 


50.2 


51.7 




19 


76.7 


55.8 




56 


41.9 


56.9 




14 


61.1 


57.3 




46 


94.8 


58.1 




36 


85.0 


58.6 




38 


77.8 


59.3 




Average, 


66.5 


54.3 



KOSSUTH COUNTY, 1906. 



Number of the 
Sample 



Percent 
Stand 



Bushels 
Per Acre 



lu highest yielding samples 



2.5 


89.5 


50 


8G.5 


16 


90.0 


116 


87.1 


77 


91.4 


22 


82.9 


19 


85.7 


103 


65.2 


48 


85.2 


18 


83.2 


Average, 


85.7 



TESTING SEED CORN. 



123 





Number of the 


Percent 


Bushels 




Sample 


Stand 


PerAcre 


10 lowest yielding samples 


70 


25.9 


33.7 




67 


43.2 


45.9 




58 


36.1 


47.9 


z 


87 


45.2 


50.1 




108 


53.1 


1 55.5 




80 


39.7 


57.0 




73 


78.6 


57.7 




72 


86.8 


58.6 




75 


71.9 


59.0 




110 


75.0 


59.0 




Average, 


55.5 


52.4 



Not only is a high percentage of stand necessary for increased pro- 
duction, but the stand must be uniform and lack missing hills. No. 
25, of the Kossuth County Station, which yielded 91.5 bushels, the 
highest of any plot in the state, showed a surprisingly uniform stand, 
3-3-3-1-1-3-3-3-2-2-3-3-3-0-3-2-3-3-3-3-0-3-3-2-3-2-3-3-3-3-2-3- 
2-2-2-3-3-2-3-1-3-2-3-2-3-3-2-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-2-2-3-3-3-3-3- 
3-3-3-3-3-3-3. 

Compare with the above. No. 70, also of Kossuth County, which 
only yielded 33.7 bushels, showing by 25.9 per cent of a perfect stand 

with a count as follows: 1-1-0-1-1-1-1-1-0-0-1-1-1-1-0-1-0-1-0-1 
-0- 1 -0-0-0-0-0- 1 -0-2-2-0- 1-0-1-1 -2- 1 -2-0- 1-1-0-1 -0-0-2-3-2-2-2-3- 
1-1-2-1-2-1-1-0-2-2-1-1-1-2-2-2-2-3. 

Tlie final summary for three years at eleven county stations, with 
a total of 1,537 farmers' samples, the relation between stand and yield 
was found to be as follows: 

/SJ7 3orr^pleS 



Per- ocre 


Dosheb 


Fbrccnt 


3/anc/ 


y/ 4 








133 

Highesf 






3fand 


~S 2 








'53 

Lowest 


477 yield 
Stand 


590 



124 



CORN. 



testing 



Through the influence of the agricultural press, the short courses,] 
corn trains, and a general movement in advance in farming methods] 
corn growers are recognizing the importance of seed testing. Yc^ 
the awakening seems slow. Out of 182 representative farmers 
throughout the state answering inquiries from the Farm Crops De-j 
partment, 79 tested every ear of their seed corn, 85 tested in a general 
way, and 18 did not test at all. 

As the result of one short course of two weeks at Mt. Pleasant in^ 
1906, the students attending the advanced classes in 1907 had all 
tested their corn the spring before. 

The Time to Test. Some corn growers make a practice of run- 
Eariy ning a preliminary test during the month of January. This is done 
in order to find out whether or not all the seed is badly damaged. 
Should such be the case, other seed could be procured and tested be- 
fore planting time. The method has a sound basis and should be 
followed more closely. One of the serious difficulties in the way is 
the liability to freezing during the test. The method is especially 
applicable to seedsmen who should know how much reliable seed 
they have on hand before the advertising season opens. 

Tlie regular and final test should be made during the month of 
March. There is less danger of the young sprouts freezing from ex- 
posure, and by this time the granary or barn has been emptied to 
such an extent that floor space is available. The planting season is 
near at hand and the tested seed has less chance to change in vitality 
from the time of testing until it is in the ground. The work can be 
completed, and the corn shelled, sorted, and sacked ready to paint, 
leaving the seed room free. 

MAKING THE TEST.— Fitting Up the Testing Box. The num- 
ber of ears to be tested determines to a certain extent the size of the 
testing box. A convenient size for the practical corn grower is a 
box sufficiently large to hold kernels from 200 ears. This will re- 
quire a box 24 by 48 inches. Six inches in depth is not objectionable 
should fencing lumber be the only thing available. This box should 
have a layer of two inches of wet sawdust packed tightly over the 
bottom. It will be found convenient to wet the sawdust in an old 
sack, letting sack and sawdust soak in warm water for 20 or 30 
minutes, that the sawdust may have equal moisture throughout. 
While the soil is Nature's seedbed, yet young plants in sprouting 
feed entirely upon the plant food stored up within the kernel. 



Final test 



Wet 

sawdust 

uniformly 



PACKING THE SAWDUST. 



125 




Fig. 35. 
PACKING THE SAWDUST IN THE GERMINATION BOX. 
The brick is used because the corners can be filled uniformly. 



126 



CORN. 




Pig. 36. 
MARKING OFF AND NUMBERING THE SQUARES. 

Note that the cloth is fastened down to a smooth surface with tacks, 
the outside rows need be numbered. 



Only 



LAYING OUT THE EARS. 



127 



Take a piece of new white muslin, which should be a little larger 
than the box, and mark off- two hundred squares, each 2x2 inches, 
corn having especially broad kernels may require squares 2x3 inches. 
This may be done with black or blue crayon. The squares may be 
numbered from one to 200, beginning in the upper left-hand corner 
and following consecutively from the left to right for each row or 
the outside rows only need be numbered. Tack the cloth in place 
stretching it uniformly tight over the sawdust. 

Take six kernels from each ear, two from opposite sides of the 
tip, two from opposite sides of the middle, and two from opposite sides 
of the butt. See that no two kernels are taken from the same row. get a 
This will be a good representation of the germinating power of each test 
ear. It is not well to take the kernels from one side only, for fre- 
quently an ear is found in which the kernels on one side germinate 
strong, while those from the other side fail to grow. 

By placing the blade of a pocket knife between two rows of ker- 
nels, and prying slightly, a kernel will readily come out into the Taking 
hand holding the ear. The six kernels should be laid on the floor kernels 
just opposite the butt of the ear. Continue this process until six 
kernels have been removed from all the ears. Now take the germina- 
tion box and, beginning on the first row, follow right down, placing 
the six kernels from the butt of each car into a square in the box, the 
number of the square corresponding to the number of the ear. Thus, 
the kernels from ear No. i in square No. i ; kernels from ear No. 2 in 
square No. 2, and so on until the 200 groups of six kernels each are 
all in their respective places. Another piece of plain muslin should 
be cut just the exact size of the box. This covers the corn kernels 
when laid in place. Next a third strip of muslin larger than the box 
by twelve inches should be placed over the second. The remainder 
of the box above should then be filled level with damp sawdust. Fold 
the edges of the upper strip of muslin over on the sawdust and the 
germination box is complete. 

A great many patent frames are being put on the market. Some 
have points of value, others are not so practical. In time, a device 
more easily manipulated than the one described may be manufac- 
tured. As economy is a factor, the best corn tester must be a labor 
saver. 



Laying Out the Ears and Filling the Box. If the seed is hanging 
in the attic or loft or stored in a seed room it should be laid out in 
rows on the floor or improvised tables. During this process, a keen 
eye will dtstect some ears which from their outward appearance indi- 



Other 
indications 



128 



CORN. 




Fig. 37. 
REMOVING THE KERNELS WITH A KNIFE. 
The strip in front of the ears shows how the l^ernels from each ear may be 
deposited. 



THE RESULT OF THE TEST. 129 

cate low vitality; as for example, a moldy cob or dark colored germ, 
giving evidence of having been injured, probably by freezing. These 
should be cast aside at once. Ears which show a lack of breeding 
may be discarded immediately, also. Having laid the ears out in 
rows on the floor, where they are held in place by two nails at each 
end of the rows, each tenth ear should be numbered, after which 
the kernels may be taken out. 

It will be found convenient to handle corn which is to be tested in 
trays of ten ears each. A small strip with holes bored in it large 
enough to hold six kernels each, may be set in front of the tray. 
After the kernels from each of the ten ears have been transferred ic 
this strip, they can be caried to the germination box and emptied on 
the squares corresponding to their respective numbers. 

For convenience in counting the test afterward, it is l)est to place 
the kernels in two tiers of three kernels each, and as evenly as pos- 
sible. Always lay the kernels side by side with the germ side up. too much 
The tips of all the kernels should point toward that end of the box not^be^"^ 
having the scjuares with tiie highest numbers. Dampen the loose 
])iecc of muslin and lay it over the kernels, taking care not to displace 
any of them. On top of this place the larger cloth filled with wet 
sawdust. Pack the corners down and press the entire mass firmly 
against the corn. The box is now ready to be set away for six to 
seven days, just as the temperature dictates. A furnace room fur- 
nishes a convenient i)lace for the germinating box. It should be left 
in a suitable place where the tem])erature will be favorable for germi- 
nation, from 50 to 70 degrees I'ahrenheit being very desirable. Do 
not let the temperature fall below freezing. 

The Result of the Test. \\y the time the stem sprouts have grown 
two inches in length a careful study of the results can be made. Be- 
ginning at one end of the box roll up the cloth containing the sawdust, S®^**^"*^ 
pressing down hard as it is rolled back. If the mass is lifted bodily test 
from the box, the kernels are likely to be dislodged. The second 
piece of muslin can then be peeled back slowly, and carefully re- 
moved Some rootlets may have penetrated it, hence there is a 
liability of displacing the kernels. 

When this has been done, place the box at. the head of row No. 
I. Begin with ear No. i. Examine the result of square No. i. There 
should be two separate sprouts appearing — the stem sprout and the 
root sprout, the former protruding from the upper or crown end of 
the kernel, the latter extending from the tip end of the germ. The 
root sprout is smaller in diameter and longer. It will often appear one 



130 



CORN. 




Fig.' 38. 
TRANSFERRING THE KERNELS TO THE TEST BOX. 
This method is rapid and deposits the kernels in the right squares according 
to the numhers. 



FINISHING THE BOX. 



131 




Fig. 39. 
FOLDING OVER THE EDGES OF THE UPPER AND LARGER CLOTH. 
Be sure to keep the corners square and the sawdust well packed into them. 



132 



CORN. 




Fig. 40. 
ROLLING BACK THE TOP COVERING OF SAWDUST PREPARATORY TO 

READING THE TEST. 
Note that the single cloth immediately over the kernels is not displaced. 



NUMBER EVERY TENTH EAR. 



133 



or two days before the stem sprout may be seen. At the time of 
examination there will be several smaller rootlets besides the pri- 
mary sprout. Not infrequently the root sprout will grow while the 
stem sprout, because of weakness or some injury, will fail to appear 
The opposite is also true, but to a less degree. Both the root and 
stem sprouts should come stocky and vigorous to insure strong vi- 
tality. 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) Fig. 41. 

EARS LAYING OUT AFTER THE KERNELS HAVE BEEN TRANSFERRED 
TO THE GERMINATION BOX. 
Every tenth ear is numbered. 



We will assume that the six kernels from car No. i all showed a great 

difference 

Strong root and stem sprouts. That is, the stem sprout was of s:ood ^iu ^^ 

'^ 1 '^ ^ noted 

length and large in diameter. A long, slender sickly stem sprout iii- in 

,. ,T ' .. different 

dicates weakness. In other words, ear No. i is a vital seed ear. ears 
Move to ear No. 2. The kernels in square No. 2 show five healthy 
sprouts, but the sixth is small and has quit growing. This is not a 
first-class ear for seed. If you have much more seed than you will 
use, then push this ear back until one-half or three-quarters of its 
length extends back of the line of ears. By this action, you mean 
to throw this ear out entirely and not plant a single kernel from 
such an unreliable source. But do not take the ear out immediately 
because the arrangement of the row of ears would be altered and 
confusion would result. On the other hand, should the supply of seed 



134 



CORN. 



corn be a little short this ear will be pushed back but a quarter length. 
This means that you will save all such ears and give them another 
test to eliminate the very weakest, and plant the best if necessary. 

Pass to ear No. 3. You are surprised to find an apparently sound 
ear has three kernels which failed to germinate. The other three 
are weak and growth has already ceased. You pronounce this a bad 
ear and push it back three-fourths of its length in the row. Ear No. 
4 shows six strong. Ear No. 5 shows six germinated, but they are 
all weak and one died soon after the sprout came out. This is 
bad and is pushed back. This process is continued, studying the out- 
come of each ear carefully. It is an interesting study and requires 
good judgment. 




Fig. 42. 

AN EXTENSIVE TEST ON. 
More uniform temperature can be maintained when the boxes are elevated. 



After the two hundred ears have been classified as to condition of 
vitality, they should be piled up in their respective classes. The bad 
ears had better be fed to the stock at once to prevent any chance 

Disposiug . . . , ,11 1 1 

cf of their becoming mixed with the good seed through carelessness or 

Tisd 69.FS C3 *— ' 

the mistake of helpers. The weak ears should be rearranged on the 
floor in another room, or any place out of the way, and another 
test run for them. 

Mr. Burnett found that it cost $1.20 to test one hundred ears by the 
sawdust-box method, allowing 20 cents per hour for two hours' labor 
in testing, and 80 cents for the cost of buying the material and making 



TESTING CORN BY THE FIRESIDE. 



135 





T^W^'.-^' 


'■■■ 




1 


M 


mn 


I^^^^^^^H 


B.' 


«i 


m 


k'-' 


v^ 


1 


H 


V^^l 


^K V. .^ 






I 


E 


IP 







(Courtesv Prof. P. G. Ilolden) 

Fig. 43. 

TESTING CORN BY THE FIRESIDE IN THE FARM HOME. 




'-Pl^^ 



Vk^A 







;^^>^/ ^^ 







-ft:*'' 






Fig. 44. 
AFTER READING THE TEST. 



136 



CORN. 






the box. This refers to the cost of the first one hundred, subsequent 

tests cost less. 

SHELLING AND GRADING. Butts and tips had better be 

shelled off by hand, because the number of irregular kernels and the 

Bemoving extent of crooked rows can best be ascertained by the eye. The 
butts „ , , , . . , 1 

a.'«^ practice of cutting ofit the buts and tips with an ax, produces many 

split kernels and wastes some corn by shelling. Shelling all the seed 
by hand, where a limited amount is used, is a method not to be criti- 
cised. A small hand sheller, however, accomplishes the same end 
much more rapidly. One man can turn and feed one ear at a time 
very conveniently. 



9 



■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 
■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 




A common 

method 

of 

grading 



(Courtesy Ulbrich Seed Corn Tester Co.) 
Fig. 45. 

A TESTER WHICH HAS PROVED VERY EFFICIENT AND ECO- 
NOMICAL. 

In front of the hand sheller have, for example, three boxes labeled 
large, medium, and small kernels. Besides the man who turns the 
sheller, another man will be needed to look after the grading. He 
should be provided with two pans, one to catch the shelled corn 
while he is emptying the other. The kernels of each ear thus being 
caught separately in a pan, can be graded to the size very accurately. 
If, for example. No. i has large kernels, empty these into the box 
marked "large kernels." Should ear No. 2 have medium sized ker- 
nels, empty them into the box marked "medium sized kernels," while 
the small kernels from ear No. 3 should be emptied into the box 
marked "small kernels." You will now have three sizes of seed — 



WRONG WAY TO PLACE KERNELS IN BOX. 



J 37 



large, medium and small. In case some of the ears have especially 
long kernels, it is well to make another grade or two, as may seem 
necessary. The man who grades can rapidly empty the pans into 
the proper boxes. 




Fig. 46. 
THE WRONG WAY TO PLACE KERNELS L\ A GERMINATION BOX. 

The result of test is difficult to ascertain. 

So far as this operation is conccrnctl, the corn has been graded 
without the use of the corn sorter. The corn sorter will, however, 
take out the small, excessively thick, and also the large irregular ker- 
nels. The three differcn.t lots which a-ou have graded — large, med- 
ium, and small kernels, may each resi)cctively be run through a corn 
sorter and in this way the ill-shaped, small, and excessively large 
kernels which were left on the ears after shelling ofif the butts and 
tips will be removed. The sorter will do it more rapidly than it could 
be done by hand. 

Many patent graders are appearing on the market. The principle 
of sorting by gravity is the best one so far evolved. With the in- 
creased volume of business to be done by seed houses and large 
growers, the commercial grader will come into use very generally. 
The chief objection to them is the fact that they take little or no 
consideration of the length of kernel, the very factor which causes 
difficulty in planting. 



138 



CORN. 



. h 




t -—r. 







» 







"1 




Fig. 47. 
THE RIGHT WAY TO PLACE KERNELS IN A BOX. 
This shows a very average general test. Notice some bad kernels here and 
there. 




Fig. 48. 

A STRONG TEST. 

Every kernel shows vigorous sprouts. 

In letters to the Farm Crops Department from i86 representative 
farmers over the State of Iowa, 86 stated that they tried to grade their 
seed corn either by hand or by a small grader. Nearly all of them 
followed the practice of shelling ofif the tip and butt kernels. 

Corn with a few years careful selection back of it will be found 
to produce kernels much more uniform as to size and shape than 
that which is produced from the common run of seed. 



COST OF TESTING. 



139 



Cost of Testing. The two following statements arc taken from ^^^^ ^^ 
personal letters from two seed corn growers who tested every car sold ^°^ 

HI 1908. 



Iowa 
test 



if'. 



Fig. 49. 
A WEAK TEST. 

Some kernels have produced strong sprouts, 
others have put out a sickly stem, others 

1, "Yours at hand and contents noted. It cost me to test my 
corn last winter, as nearly as I can figure, about 25 cents per 
bushel. 




Fig. 50. 
A rJAD TEST. 

Many kernels have rotted in the box, others 
have sent out weak and dwarfed sprouts. 

"I used boxes 3x4 feet that held 4 1-2 bushels or 358 ears. 
There were eight of these boxes, with four and one-half yards o!; 
muslin to the box. Sawdust free. 



140 



CORN. 



Muslin, 35 yards at 9 cents 

Time to get boxes ready, 4 hours at 15 cents 

Cost of filling box with kernels, 3 hours per box, and 8 

boxes 24 hours at 15 cents 

Oil to furnish heat, one gallon per day at 12 cents (Time 

to germinate, 10 days) 

Time to take off test, 10 hours at 15 cents 



.$ 3-15 
. .60 

. 3.6a 

1.20 

. 1.50 



Total $10-05 

Thirty-six bushels $10.05 

One bushel, almost 28" 

(2) "Your letter at hand 
in regard to the cost of 
testing seed corn on a com- 
mercial scale; and in re- 
ply will say that I esti- 
mate that it costs me $1.00 
per bushel to test corn. 
This includes everything, 
heat, labor, the cost of 
handling the extra corn 
which you have to throw 
out, etc." 

It will be noted that 
these vary considerably. 
The latter, however, takes 
account of the amount of 
corn thrown out for poor 
vitality. This was a large 
item the spring of 1908. 

Hand Sorting the Grad- 
ed Shelled Corn. There 
may be present a limited 
number of immature and 
even blackened kernels 
which were pollinated 
later than the others. 
The germination test, of course, did not prove their presence. There 
Kemovin ^^il^ be more or less mice eaten grains and kernels cracked by the 
kenills sheller. Hence it will pay the smaller grower to have the children sort 
these out and the larger farmer can economically afford to hire it done. 
To facilitate this process, a convenient method is to pour the shelled 




Fig. 51. 

A PATENT TESTER WHICH HAS THE GOOD 

QUALITY OP SEPARATING THE KERNELS 

OF EACH EAR INTO LITTLE CUPS, 

WHICH MAY BE SET OUT IN I'aONT OF 

THE CAR. 



CALIBRATING THE PLANTER. 



141 



corn on the table in a pile. At a little distance below the edge of 
the table, a drawer may be ojjened or a bench built. Place two 
pans at this point. The operator should be seated and can handily 
sort the discarded kernels into one pan and the desirable ones into 

the other. This process is 
more rapid than usually con- 
sidered. Allowing the 
shelled corn to roll down an 
incline to the operator will 
save time. 

CALIBRATING THE 
PLANTER. The corn 
planter should, now be set 
u]) in good order, ready for 
calibration. This (may be 
(lone on the barn floor or. 
if the weather permits, out- 
ride on the dry earth. A 
--cparate pair of planter 
plates must be selected for 
tlie planting of each grade 
of corn. Prop the planter 
up so that it will be free 
from the floor. It is nec- 
essary to use but one side 
in calibrating, unless it be- 
comes necessary to file the 
plates. This is not to be 
advised, as it may take con- 
siderable time, and other 
plates can be purchased. 
The wheel can now be 
turned by hand with lit- 
tle effort and at the same time a record taken of the rate of 
dropping. It is well to have two working at this — one to turn the 
wheel and the other to keep record. The first set of plates may not 
drop more than 65 per cent of a perfect drop. That is, if three kernels 
be taken as the required number, the plates may only plant three 
kernels 65 times out of 100. 

Another set of plates may have to be tried. This should be con- 
tinued until a drop of over 90 per cent is secured. Planter boxes with 



V. 

' • •' L 

k f,' 

i 


^^^WIWiTTiw 1 OI^tWiIIWB 


1 


^^^Pf'.'»?;)^i'W 


■ 

m 



(Courtesy Adams Seed Co., Decoruh, la.) 
Fig. 52. 

STANDARD SEED CORX TESTER. 
Shows method of henting uniformly. Mois- 
ture maintained easilv. 



Chang e 
plates 



142 



CORN. 



hinges are very convenient for the transition in these tests. The edge 
drop planter has come into very general use. It takes into ac- 
count the thickness of the kernel and drops one at a time until the re- 
nuired number have accumulated, then the check wires free them to 




THREE TYPES OF KERNELS WHICH WHEN SHELLED TOGETHER 

CANNOT BE EXPECTED TO BE DROPPED ACCURATELY 

BY THE ORDINARY PLANTER. 



gether. For the farmer who grades his corn thoroughly and tests his 
planter each year, the edge drop will do more accurate work. On the 
other hand, where the undesirable practice is followed of plantin 



i 



INCREASING THE ACCURACY OF DROP. 



143 



all sizes of kernels with the same plate, the round hole plate will come 

nearer planting uniformly under all conditions. By calibrating the drop"*^^ °' 

planter, the accuracy of drop has been increased in some cases as fncrea^sed 



I 




(Courtesy Agricultural Engineering Department 
of the Iowa State College.) 

Fig. 54. 
HAND-SHAKE CORN SORTER. 

Very rapid and efficient sorting can be done in a sm.ill 
way with this device. 



much as 19 per cent, by simply filing the holes until the kernels 
dropped through more uniformly. Tests of 72 per cent have been 
raised to 85 per cent : 42 to 61 ; 74.6 to 89.8. Of 178 correspondents 




Fig. 55. 
A GRAIN CLEANER WHICH HAS A 
CORN GRADING ATTACHMENT. 

This does away with buying two machines. 

replying to inquiries of the Farm Crops Department, 153 replied af- 
firmatively in regard to calibrating and testing the drop of :heir 
planters. 



144 CORN. 

The planter should be calibrated for each of the three grades. The 
corn should then be sacked and the planter plates tied with the sack. 
\\'here different varieties are to be planted by the same machine, 
oftentimes the medium plates for one variety will plant the larj^e 
kernels of another. 

THE CORN GROWERS REMINDER 

Remember. 

1. That home-grown seed is the surest. 

2. To harvest the seed corn before the first killing frost. 

3. To hang it up in a well ventilated place. 

4. That corn full of moisture is liable to freeze and thus lose t.^ 
vitality. 

5. To store seed in warm place during extremely cold weatlr::. 

6. To make a germination box during the winter. 

7. To test each ear of seed corn during the month of March. 

8. To grade the tested seed. 

9. To calibrate the corn planter to drop the graded seed. 

10. That poor seed is the chief cause of poor stand. 

11. That a poor stand means a small yield. 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

Pr.»fessor P. G. Holden is to be accredited with many valuable 
pointers in this chapter. It is the outcome of the rapid evolution <-( 
methods adopted by the Iowa State College. 

The Extension Department of the Iowa State College, has veiy 
kindly placed at our disposal much data of a state-wide nature C')ver 
ing tests under varying conditions. 

\\'e owe much also to the corn growers who co-operated with '^^^ 
in furnishing first-hand material. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Selection of Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 193. 
Corn Improvement, 

Indiana Bulletin No. no. 
Seed Selection According to Specific Gravity, 

New York (Geneva) Bulletin No. 256. 
Seed Grain, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 24 (Press). 



COLLATERAL READING. 145 



Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 65. 
Increasing the Yield of Corn, 

Tennessee Bulletin No. 2. 
Seed Corn Buying and Judging, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 225. 
Seed Corn, Selection and Preparation, 

Iowa Bulletin No. yj. 
The Improvement of Corn, 

Pennsylvania Bulletin No. 133. 
Corn Improvement for Missouri, 

Missouri Bulletin No. 59. 
Selection of Seed Corn, 

Iowa Bulletin No. 68. 
Handling Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 244. 
A Study of Delaware Seed Corn, 

Delaware Bulletin No. yj. 
Seed Corn, Better Grades of, 

Page 34 of U. S. Report No. 83. 
The Testing of Corn for Seed, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 96. 
A Test of the Vitality of Seed Corn, 

Illinois Circular No. 49. 
Selecting Seed Corn, 

Florida Bulletin No. 46. 
A. B. C. of Corn Culture, 

Professor P. G. Holden. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 26. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. t^^. 
Indian Corn, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 
Seed Corn, Testing of for Vitality, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 136. 
Selection of Seed Corn, Method and Time, 

Idaho Bulletin No. 57. 
Seed Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 272. 



CHAPTER VII. 

CARE OF THE CORN CROP 
PREPARING THE GROUND AND PLANTING 

1. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOWING. 

2. PLOWING THE GROUND. 

A. Objects of Plowing. 

B. Points of Merit in Plowing. 

C. Depth of Plowing. 

(i) Deep Plowing. 
(2) Shallow Plowing. 

D. Fall Plowing. 

E. Spring Plowing. 

F. Plowing Sod. 

3. TREATMENT OF PLOWED GROUND BEFORE PLANT 

ING. 

A. Disc. 

B. Special Harrows. 

C. Smoothing Harrow. 

D. Rolling. 

<. PLANTING WITH CHECK ROWER. 

A. Time of Planting. 

Jj. Depth of Planting. 

C. Distance Between Rows. 

D. Numl)er of Stalks Per Hill. 

E. What is a Perfect Stand? 

F. Replanting of Corn. 

5. DRILLING CORN. 

6. LISTING. 

A. Preparing the Ground. 

B. Use of the Lislcr. 



RAKING STALKS. 



147 



PREPARATION OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLOV/TNG. 

Small ,c^rain stubble land which is to be ph^wed in the fnll sliDni-l 
be disced thoroughly immediately after the grain shocks are re- 
moved. The surface will dry out less and the weeds will receive 
quite a setback. The moisture which would have been evaporated Freezing 

•111 !•• -L 1 disintegrates 

from the surface will be stopped in its upward passage just beneath the 
the sub "urface strata. The soil will remain loose and when plowed 
later will not turn up in lumps. Where the ground is low and sub- 




Fig. 56. 
HEAVY CORN STALK RAKE. 
Stirs the ground more and will work where the hay rake is too light. 

ject to overflow, often weeds grow so rank after harvest as to neces- 
sitate their being mowed before any plowing is done. In localities 
which practice the short rotation of corn and oats or corn and wheat, 
the stubble is often covered with barnyard manure before plowing. 
The heat and moisture of autumn and the freezing of winter disin- 
tegrate the soil and decompose the straw and other material to such an 
extent that by planting time the following spring the humus thus 
added is thoroughly mixed with the soil. 

The rolling uplands in southern Iowa lack very much in humus, 
hence the stalks should always be incorporated in the already sticky Kaking 
silty soil. Corn planted the first year following sod, may produce stalks 
such an excessive growth of stalks as to make raking necessary. 

Where corn is cut for silage the stubble may be split up and the 
rows leveled to advantage by discing before plowing. Land upon which 
fodder shocks have stood all winter is better treated thus also. But 
the greater number of fields in the corn belt are stocked with cattle 
during the winter and when spring comes the bare stalks remain 



148 



CORN. 



Standing. A railroad iron or heavy harrow is usually used to drag 

Reaso^ns ^j^^j^^ down. The practice of raking them up with a hay rake or 

^"'corn heavy corn-stalk rake is less in vogue at present because the soil 

stalks j-gqi^iires humus and fertilizing materials. Yet a very heavy crop may 

require the disposition of the bulk of the stalks by burning. The 




Fig. 57. 

SINGLE ROW STALK CUTTER. 

The stalk cutter can be used early in the spring before the 
field is dry enough to disc. The hooks in front straight- 
en out the stalks lengthwise with the row. 



chief arguments advanced in favor of burning corn stalks are : first, 
the freeing of the surface soil of trash which would otherwise pre- 
vent the planter from running at a uniform depth, and may even at 
times cause the deposition of kernels on the surface ; and second, the 
partly covered stalks catch in the shovels of the cultivator the first 
time over and dislodge whole hills of corn. 

The single-row stalk cutter is little used at present because, except 
for cutting the stalks, it does very little toward loosening the surface 
staJk of the soil. Its only claims of practical value are : first, the fact that 
being of light draft, it can be used early when the ground is not yet 
dry enough for heavier tools; and second, a boy can operate it. 



Corn 



J 



DISCS. 



149 



Since the implement companies have put out double-row cutters, 
drawn by three horses, the single-row cutters have largely fallen into 
disuse. 




Fig. 59. 
FULL DISC HARROW. 
The most commonly used in Iowa. 

St'ilk fields are now usually disced in the spring before plowing. By ^^^^^ 

so doing, the surface soil is loosened and a dust mulch thereby se- ^^^\°g^ 

cured which accomplishes three things: First, the surface openings »»"^«=^ 
of the capillary tubes are l)roken. This not only preventing the loss 




Fig. 60. 
SPADING DISC HARROW. 
When set at an angle it will cut stalks completely. In sod 
the pieces of turf are thrown about, but not cut up. 



150 CORN. 

of moisture, but that moisture which does rise is held just below the 
surface ; Second, this moisture being present keeps the soil from dry- 
ing out, and when turned over by the mold board the soil crumbles 
and falls into the furrow loosely. Third, the surface which has been 
previously fined now becomes the bottom of the furrow slice, which 
because of its texture reunites with the severed capillary tubes, thus 
re-establishing the course of the moisture upward. 




Fig. 61. 
BREAKING PLOW. 
Used in plowing sod. Notice tliat the moldboard is 
very sloping. 



Weeds and grass allowed to grow up in corn-stalk land in 

spring, before plowing are first injurious to the physical condition 

spring injure of the soil bccausc they compact and harden the surface, which in 

the physical . . 

turn allows the rapid evaporation of moisture. W hen this green 
mat is turned under later, it acts as a partition between the furrow 
slice and the bottom of the furrow. Second, weeds also utilize a large 
amount of available plant food, which is always scarce in spring- 
plowed ground, and at the same time the decaying green material 
renders the soil more or less acid. Rotting green manure requires a 
great deal of moisture which must necessarily be drawn from the sur- 
face soil. Often the furrow slice becomes very dry within a few days. 

Two methods of discing are practiced. By one, the field is disced 
with the stalks standing. In such cases, the disc is driven at an angle 
to the rows across the field. The ridges are leveled and the stalks 
cut to pieces. The other plan, the one usually practiced, is to harrow 
stalks ^j. (^j-^g |-|-,g stalks down and then disc them crosswise of the row : 
that iS; crosswise of the way the stalks are laying. In case of heavy 
stalks, the discs, even if very Ireavy and sharp, will often ride over 
if they are piled deeply between the rows. The advantage of the first 
method is becoming apparent to many. 



Discing 
corn 



METHODS OF PLOWING. 



151 



stalks 



Disciii"- sod land in the fall, when it is to be plowed immediately, 

XJs6 a, 

is of little service. At that time the disc will not cut deeply because weed-hook 
the ground is so dry. The freezing and thawing of winter and spring ofheavy 
have time to disintegrate the layers. Experience has shown that the 
rougher such sod turns up, the greater will be this erosion because of 
the lodgment of snow and the openness which admits the entrance 
of rain. In plowing sod in a short rotation, where a large crop of le- 




(Courtesy Janesvillp J[achine Co.) 

Fig. 62. 
SULKY PLOW. 
Used in plowing both sod and stubble. Being heavy and having 
a rolling coulter in front, this plow will operate even where con- 
siderable trash is on the ground. 



Disc 



gumes or grass is on the surface, a "weed-hook'' should be used in 
order to drag everything into the furrow to insure complete covering. 
This is essential for proper decomposition. 

Where sod is to be plowed in the spring, a thorough discing just 
when the frost is out two or three inches, will tear up the surface ^"4 before 

' It IS to 

la3'er and allow the furrow slice to break over like stubble ground. J'® piovie 

•^ ° in the 

When such a short time remains in which to rot the surface turf ^''""^ 

and reconnect the capillary tubes, it is essential that the underside 

of the surface slice not only lay closely to the bottom of the furrow, 

but that such surface be of fine texture. The disc also disturbs and 

destroys many hibernating injurious insects. 

PLOWING THE GROUND.— The Objects of Plowing Are: To 

alter the texture of the soil to a considerable depth, and to bury com- 
pletely any vegetation or other organic matter on the surface of the 
ground. It is essential that any legume, grass or stubble on the sur- 



152 CORN. 

face be turned completely under. Live stock farmers usually apply 
manure to land iust before plowing for corn, in order to get the most 

Com is X t-T "— 

***« out of it in the "money crop." The complete burial of this material is 

money -^ '■ 
crop desirable. 




(Courtesy Jar.esvillo Machine Co.) 

Fig. 63. 
GANG PLOW IN OPERATION. 
Plows two furrows at a time. There are also plows with three or more 
mold boards. 

First, such organic matter, if present in large quantities, may be 
in the way of cultivation. 

Second, partial covering of easily or partly decomposed material, 
especially in loose and sandy soils, causes a loss of plant food. The 
extreme porosity of the seed bed also makes it difficult for the roots 
to spread. 

The Points of Merit in Plowing. A straight furrow of uniform 
Plowing width and depth. The farmers of England and Scotland encourage 
matches ^^^^j^. ^^^^^ ^^ ^^j^g pride in a clean furrow^. To many western Amer- 
icans, such intelligent interest seems foolish, the real point of merit 
with them being to get over the ground as rapidly as possible. A 
number of localities in Indiana and Ohio have within the last few 



GOOD PLOWING. 



153 



years held plowing matches which have shown the skill of the younger 
lads of the community. At Wick and Cherokee, Iowa, similar con- 
tests are carried on each year, at which time speakers from a distance 
are invited to speak and a day is set aside for a local picnic and edu- 
cational outing. 

A clean-cut slice both on its land side and floor. Beside indicatin;^ 
pride and interest in plowing, a clean land side and a consistent floor 
of even width and depth insures a complete alteration of texture. In- 




Fig. G4. 

DIAUUAM SII(»\VIN(; TIIK DIRKCTION OF TIIK C.M'TL- 

LARY 'ITliKS AM) TKXTrUK OF TIIK SOU. KARLY 

IN TIIK SPRING AFTKR TIIK SURFACK HAS 

DRIKD OUT AND NO CULTIVATION 

HAS BEEN DONE. 

Thp tubes extend to the surface and convoy the moisture 
from helow to their upi>pr extremities, where it is dis- 
charged and carried away by evaporation due to tlie sun 
and the velocity of the wind. 



Stead of the furrow slice being completely inverted it should be left 
more or less on edge in order to permit the most effective action of 
weathering agencies and of implements in the preparation of the seed 
bed. 

Uniformly plowed ridges. Where a small plow follows a larger 
one, often the ridges are very uneven. More surface is exposed for 
drying out, and, as a rule, the trash is not well covered. Fully twice 
as much work is required to get such a field in shape for the corn 
planter. This uneven ridging sometimes occurs on hillsides, in which 
case it cannot be prevented. 

Complete burial of the grass or stubble is also important. 

Depth of Plowing, This is a question that cannot be answered 
definitely, but must be considered in connection with the character 
of the soil, the time of the season, the climate, and the purpose to 
which the ground is to be put. 



154 



CORN. 



Deep plowing. For a deep, rich soil, deep plowing is very geu- 
piow erally considered best if done in the fall. Fred McCulloch, of Hart- 
de"piy wick, Iowa, found in 1904 that fewer weeds appeared in the corn 
ji^^ field which was plowed in the spring five incheg deep than in the one 
soils plowed three inches in depth. For thin clay soils, sub-soiling is bet- 
ter than very deep plowing, because it does not turn the compact clay 
to the surface, yet at the same time it loosens the soil to a consider- 








Fig. 65. 
DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SURFACE SOIL STIRRED 

SLIGHTLY AND A MULCH ESTABLISHED. 
This is bruuglit about by discing com stalk ground early 
in the spring. The moisture rising from below is not 
allowed to escape, but is checked in its upward course, 
just below this mulch. 

able depth. Plowing should not be of the same depth from year to 
year, for as by so doing the soil is not mixed well and a hard surface 
is left at the bottom of the furrow where the horses walk and the plow 
drags. A little sub-soil turned to the surface occasionally will be 
acted upon by the atmospheric elements and plant food liberated. As 
^ ""s'^Fms it becomes mixed with the surface soil and vegetable growth, the 
impervio^us ^^^^^ ^^ surface soil will be increased. A compact soil is lees per- 
vious to air and moisture, and if organic matter is covered too deeply 
it will not decay for some time on that account. In general, to accom- 
plish the most desirable results, it is advisable to plow a little deeper 
each season for several successive seasons, and then for one season 
give a plowing at about half of the depth of the deepest plowing. It 
is well to have the farm mapped, the various fields numbered an 
records kept of the annual treatment and production of each field. 
Shallow plowing. Shallow plowing is not practiced in the fall 
the corn belt, but is customary in the spring because the deeper the 
Plow shauow plowing the greater is the amount of labor required to re-establish the 
sprinl capillary connection with the sub-soil. This labor is performed by 
Nature when plowing is done in the fall, while much discing, harrow- 
ing, and even rolling is often necessary to rectify the severing of 
capillary connection in the spring. This capillarity is not re-estab 



II 



II 



FALL PLOWING. 



155 



lished so readily with deep plowing as when the plowing is shallow 
Plowing breaks up the capillary connection with the sub-soil, 
which must in turn be re-established or vigorous plant growth is im m^^t ti" ^ 
possible. Deep spring plowing and spring sub-soiling are likely to before 
result in diminished crops, especially if done after the spring rains g" w weu 
The loosening of the soil to great depths admits air and facilitates gon* 
the loss of soil moisture. It also interrupts capillarity so that the 
moisture is not readily drawn from greater depths. 




Fig. 66. 

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE EFFECT OF THE MOLD BOARD UPON 

THE CAPILLARY TUBES IN THE SOIL. 
The layers of soil by jrli'li'ig over each other break off the tubes. The 

more abrupt the mold board the greater the amount of crumbling of 

the furrow-slice. 

Fall Plowing. Fall plowing is not considered advisable in the 
south, where the winters are very mild, accompanied with little or no 
cold weather. In Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota and Nebraska, the temper- 
ature becomes low and the weather is so variable as to cause con- 
siderable heaving of the surface. Freezing disintegrates the soil. 
and the mellowing of the furrow slice allows the nitrifying bacteria 
to begin action early in the spring. Weedy areas are plowed in the 
fall to check the growth and bury the immature seeds. In fact, many 
consider this the only object of fall plowing. Wherever a crop 
whether a crop of weeds or of fall forage, grows late in the fall, the 
following corn crop is slow in starting. That is, the available plant 
food was drawn upon until cold weather set in, thus not allowing the 
formation of soluble compounds during the warm weather of the 
autumn months. In the rougher corn sections, fall plowed fields 
wash so badly and ditches form so quickly that the practice should 
be discontinued. This is especially true of soils which have been 
depleted of their humus. There being no organic matter present to 
retain the moisture and hold the particles of soil, the whole mass 



156 



CORN. 



slumps away and is carried to loAver levels. Such conditions have 
compelled corn growers in these localities to rotate, and in some 
cases to even sow the fields to grass permanently. 




Fig. 67. 

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE CAPIL 
LARY TUBES AFTER A FIELD HAS BEEN 
PLOWED TO A DEPTH OF 4 TO 6 INCHES. 
As the furrow- slice is turned they are broken. Hence the 
moisture from below is checked in its upward current 
just below the bottom of the furrow. Hence plants ger- 
minating near the surface are cut off from all supply 
beneath. This is why corn on spring plowed ground 
starts slowly in the early part of the season. 

.r. „ , . Fall plowins: cannot be recommended for all climates and i'~>cal- 

Fall plowing ^ &> 

should be Jtigg, but should be more generally practiced than at present. If a 

ore generally • c^ j i r ^ 

practiced cover crop or sod be turned under in the fall, decomposition wil! 



r-.'i^VJj^V t^.^'^'t^-^yi y'e.-Ji^Vr y ^'l j "''- j /'.'■'■ •^-'cCV'^.i,':; 




Fig. 68. 

DIAGRAM SHOWING WHAT EFFECT DISCING, HAR- 
ROWING AND ROLLING HAS UPON THE 
PLOWED FIELD. 

Of course the surface is made much finer. But the di.sc 
reaches down to greater depths and begins to settle the 
loose earth upon the furrow-bottom. The packing grad- 
ually re-establishes the capillary connection. The fact 
that spring ijlowing requires some time during the early 
part of the season to accomplish this process tenils to 
hold the moisture of the soil until later in the summer 
when it is most needed. 

increase the amount of plant food available for the crop the next sum- 
mer. This is true to some extent even though the crop is not turned 



DO NOT NEGLECT FALL PLOWING. 



157 



under, inasmuch as the simple loosening- of the sod admits atmos- 
pheric oxygen and increases chemical action upon vegetable and min- 
eral matter. Fall plowing- is one of the methods of combatting grub 
worms, cut worms and wire worms, which are often destructive to 
corn. Because the surface of soil plowed in the fall is dryer at plant- 
ing time in the spring than that of the ground not so treated, it doe;» 
not nccessarilv follow thai there is less moisture in fall plowed land 




Fig. 69. 

TOOTH, 
1L\RR0W 
The teeth are adjustahle by tlie use of the levers. 



FOUR SKCTIOX, 100 TOOTH, 'JO FOOT SMOOTIIIXO 
1I.\RR0W. 



contains 

more 

moisture 



"In fact, fall plowed ground shuuld contain more moisture for the 
growing crop the following season than that land plowed in the spring. 
With fall plowing the rain and moisture may l)ctter penetrate the weii managed 
sub-soil, r.ecause of the rough surface much moisture is held which ground^^ 
might otherwise be lost. Not infretiuently poor management of fall more' 
plowed ground causes in the spring a very serious loss of moisture. 
Ground plowed in the fall should be thoroughly disced early the 
following spring to prevent heavy loss of moisture by evaporation 
When the ground is left in a rough condition not only will the stirred 
portion of the soil be readily acted upon and dried out by the winds 
and sun of early spring, but there, is ready access to the sub-soil as 




(Courtesy Duaiie II. Xasli) Fig. 70. 

CURVED KXIFE HARROW. 
Although not in peneral use, this harrow has the advantage of the running ci;t, which is 
especially valuable in pulverizing sod. 

well. Fall plowed land which has been thus neglected may be ex- 
pected to contain less moisture than had the ground been plowed 
in the spring. By the use of the disc and harrow in early spring 



Fall plowing 
matures 
crops 



158 CORN. 

on fall plowed ground, a surface mulch can be established which* 
will prevent this excess evaporation and insure to the farmer a 
greater amount of moisture in the soil for the following crop than had 
the land been plowed in the spring. Fall plowed ground properly 
earlier cared for in the spring may be expected to mature a crop of corn a 
little earlier than will the spring plowing, and in case of a dry season 
there \\ill be much less damage from drought. 

Spring Plowing. Fields which have been in corn the previous 
year, must, according to the common practice of husking in the field 




plowing 



Fig. 71. 

DISC PLOW. 

Used in low wet ground where a mold board plow would not scour. 

and allowing stock to forage among the stalks during the winter, be 
plowed in the spring. Just how early this can be done depends to a 
large extent upon, first, the weather during April and May. Exces- 
conditions sive rainfall and a lack of sunshine will prevent plowing even on well 
earfy drained fields. As long as the bottom of the furrow slice turns up 
slick and the particles of soil run together rather than crumble, plow- 
ing had better be postponed. Such a surface will bake immediately 
in the sun and the clods thus formed will sometimes remain un- 
changed during the entire season. Second, the lay of the land. Fields 
sloping to the north are sometimes ten to 14 days later in drying out 
in the spring than are similar areas facing the south. Low areas 
underlaid with an impervious clay often require the warm winds of 
May to evaporate the surface moisture sufficiently to admit of plow- 
ing. Third, the amount of available labor. Where large areas are 
to be plowed, although the teams are started early in the season it is 



PW)\VINO SOD. 



159 



sometimes late before all the furrows arc turned. The sowing of 
large areas of small grain also often prevents early plowing. Not 
many years since, it was a common idea to allow fields to grow up 
to weeds which were turned umler, with the supposition that so 
many enemies bad been destrtiyed for the crop of the .season. Think- 
ing farmers have found that it is the weed seeds which are turne<l 
up from the l)oitt>m of the furrow slice which do the most damage. 
These should be brought to the surface early in the spring in order 
that they may be destroyed before planting time. Early plowing 
also admits of m«>re thorough preparation of the seed bed just before 
planting. 




FiK. 72. 
OR.NF.RAI. IMKI'OHK IM.OW. 
Mold lioard ii nel at ■ufflcieiil mielp lu nilow the uiie of thig plow iu 
•loil or (tubhle. 

The time of plowintr land which was in cnrji the previous year is Time of 
' " ' - plowing 

here shown for ( .fferent localities of Iowa in 1908. »« ^o*^ 



COUNTT 



SInux 



TOWN 



Hnwarden 

Waiikon . . 



Allamakee 

Mills I (;i.'nw«)od . . . 

Dallas I)alla.s Center 

VnKG nianchard . . . 



TIMR OP PLOWING 
Week Month 



Plrst .. 
First .. 
Third . 
Fourth 
Secuud 



May . 
May 

April 
April 
AprU 



Plowing Sod. The virgin s«»d land of the corn belt is rapidly 
becoming a thing of the past. .\ study of statistics of wild hay mead 
ow shows a steady decrease in production. In such lan<l the breaking 
plow is used to some extent in peeling back a rhallow furrow in the 
fall, a deeper plowing to follow in the spring. Little alteration of 
texture can be brought al«>ut in turning the virgin prairie s«»d. 



160 



CORN. 




First, the heavy draft (hie to the obstinate turf produccfl 

by the roots of prairie j^^rasses, and second, the fact tliat considerable 

riowing time is needed lo decompose such turf, requires that it be plowed in 

""^Bod the fall, thus alK.winjj the freezing to break up the furrow slice. The 

closer the furrow slices are laid together, the greater the retention 

of moisture and consequent heaving. Because the roots fill the sur 

face layer of soil so full of huinu 

and undecayed organic matter that 

^ ^ H cultipation of the crop is difficult the 

•fl^^ I first year, the mat of grasses on the 

I H 13 surface is usually burned before 

I II U plowing. In such cases, the practice 

•^^ 11 is warranted because the sod is slow 

in reconnecting the capillary tubes 
and "firing" of the corn often results 
during the summer l)ecause of tlii- 
condition. 

Because of the newness of this 
soil and the large amount of plant 
food which is available early in the 
season, flax is largely used for the 
first year's crop, especially in the 
northern districts. In the southern 
part of Iowa, the northern part of 
^Missouri, and over a large part of 
Kansa.-. winter wheat is often sown the first j'-ear. 

Rotation of crops has 
now come to be a perma- 
nent factor in imjiroved 
farming. Clover and tim- 
othy meadow, because of 
a short rotation in which 
corn is the heavy yieldor 
and money crop, hardly 
ever becomes really sod- 
ded. Furthermore, be- 
cause corn follows them 
directly and is expected to 
produce heavily the first 
season, a greater amount 
in structure in the sod is desired. Mence a plow 
mold ])(\ird is used. Plowing pasture lands and 
meadows in the fall has five distinct advantages. In the first place, the 
work can be done at a more slack time. Second, the freezing and 
thawing of the winter months alters the physical texture of the soil. 



Fig. 73. 

(Courtesy H. F. Avery & Sons) 
STEEL JOINTER. 
Used to toar up stiff sod just in front 
the mild hoard. 





A large 

amount 

of 

alteration of 

texture of 

soil 

required 



(Courtesy H. I-'. Avery & .Sons) 

Fig. 74. 

ROLI.IXG COULTERS. 



TVl'ES Ol 

of alteration 
with steeper 



PREPARATION PREVIOUS TO PLANTING. 



161 



Third, the decomposition of the turned under organic matter renders 
plenty of plant food available for the use of the young corn plant in 
early spring. Fourth, capillary connection is re-established not only 
because of the changed texture of the soil, but also because the turf 
rots away. Fifth, the hibernating quarters of many injurious insects 
are disturbed and destroyed. Some, such as the army worm, are 
turned under so deeply as to bury the pupa completely. 

If sod is plowed in the spring, it 
should be done early. 

First, the rush of farm work requires 
it. There will be plenty of corn-stalk 
land which canot be plowed until later 
because of being so wet. Wet sod, al- 
though it turn up slick on the bottom 
of the furrow slice, will not bake and 
become cloddy because of the presence 
of such an abundance of humus. 

Second, there is but a short time at 
best in which to re-establish the capil- 
lary connection. This is best accom- 
plished by early plowing, for when the 
sod is full of moisture it breaks up as 
it falls over and the turf has time to 
decay. 
Third, the sod has lost no moisture because of the growth of 
spring grasses. Such grass, if allowed to grow until later, not only 
uses moisture and available plant food, but in itself is a menace, 
because it lays in the bottom of the furrow and prevents the rise of 
moisture from below. 

To show the time of plowing sod in different parts of Iowa under 
varying soil conditions, as well as a difference in latitude, the fol- 
lowing table is given for 1908. 




(Courtesy B. F. Avery & Sons) 

Fig. 75. 

ROLLING COULTER WITH SHC: 
IN FRONT WHICH PREVENTS 
EXCESSIVE TRASH FROIvI 
LODGING ABOVE THE COUL- 
TER WITHOUT BEING CUT. 



COUNTY 


TOWN 


TIME OF PLOWING 
Week Month 


Sioux 


Hawarden 

Waukon 

Glenwood 

Dallas Center 

Blanchard 


Third and Fourtt 

Second 

Third 

First 

First 


April 


Allamakee 

Mills 


April 

March 


Dallas 


April 


Page 


April 



TREATMENT OF THE GROUND BEFORE PLANTING. 

Much stress has been laid upon the question of having a proper seed 
bed for corn. There is no question but that corn well put in is already 



Why plow 
sod early 



Time of 
plowing 
sod in 
Iowa 



162 



CORN. 



half tended. The definition of the ideal conditions which can some 
years almost be reached are, first, soil of such physical condition that 
the smaller particles are compacted closely around the seed. This in- 




(Courtesy Kramer) Fig. 76. 

ROTARY DISC ATTACHED TO PLOW. 
Because it pulverizes the soil right off the mold board there is no chance 
for the formation of clods. 

An Ideal sures perfect germination of viable seeds. Second. There should also 
be plenty of available plant food. This is dependent upon air and 




(Courtesy J. W. Dunham & Son) Fig. 77. 

SMOOTH STEEL ROLLER. 

moisture as well as bacteria. Third. Freedom from weed seeds. 
With the Disc. Experience and experiments have proved the val- 



DISCS. 



163 



ue of the disc. The agricultural press has been urging the corn grow- '" 
ers to use it freely. Because the blades cut deeply into the newly 
turned-up mold, the spaces between the larger lumps of earth are 
reduced and the whole mass settles down more closely to the sub- 
soil. 

The full-bladed disc harrow for the general purpose of pulverizing 
and loosening the ground is the best tool yet devised. It has the ad- ^"^^''^'^a'ded 
vantage of being suitable for use on either sod, stubble or corn stalk 
lands. 



The cutaway and spading discs are also used in a more limited 



Cutaway 



way, the former being adapted for cultivating hay lands, the latter spading 
more especially for corn stalk ground. 




Fig. 78. 

FLANKER. 
Used in smoothing and packing. 

Discing spring plowing is a common practice among the farmers 
of the corn belt. Often heavy rains run the surface particles to- 
gether to such an extent that a tooth harrow is incapable of loosening 
them. Grain stubble which has been plowed the previous fall re- 
quires at least two discings before it is in shape to plant. 

The disc may be set deeper the first time than the second. Disc- 
ing both lengthwise and crosswise leaves no surface unturned. Fall- 
plowed sod should be disced very early in the spring because, 

First, the loosening of the surface admits air into the sod to de- J^^easons for 

' ° discing 

compose the organic matter, which lies next to the bottom of the ^^ plowing 
furrow. Because of this action, plant food is rendered available. 

Second. The physical condition of the soil being finer, the whole 
mass settles more closely upon the sub-soil, reuniting the capillary 
tubes and conducting moisture from the greater depths to the surface. 

Third. Weeds which have started to grow are destroyed. 



164 



CORN. 



Fourth. The numerous weed seeds present in the surface soil 
are induced to germinate because of the admittance of warm air. They 
can be destroyed later by vigorous harrowing. 

Fifth. Helps to form a mulch and thus conserves moisture. 

Sod which Is not plowed until spring, even though it is turned 
over as early as the weather permits, depends chiefly upon the disc 
for preparation. The firing of sod corn in July can usually be traced 
directly to spring plowing or an insuflficient discing of fall plowing. 
Large pieces of turf admit the air and allow moisture to be taken dij 
rectly from the sub-soil. 




(Courtesy of J. W. Dunham & Son) Fig. 79. 

COMBINED PULVERIZER AND PACKER. 
Best adapted to grip clods and crush them. 

Special Harrows. For stony land, or in timbered sections where 
the teeth are liable to catch on roots, the spring-tooth harrow has a 
spnng-tooth decided value. The teeth can be set to gouge forward and hence 
tear up sod more than the fixed tooth harrow. The later manufac- 
turers mount the frame on runners, which does away with bouncing 
effect common in spring-tooth harrows when set too deep. Some are 
also mounted on low trucks with the same end in view. 

Curved knif.? harrows and drag jnilverizers arc used to some 
extent, but where corn stalks are prei^ent in any number they ride 
over them too easily. For fining the surface of a field which has 
already been well worked, the pulverizer is especially well suited. 

Smoothing Harrow. The rigid, straight-toothed harrow does effi 
cient work on ground free from trash. Because of an excess of stalks 
the slant tooth and lever harrows are more practical and popular. 



HARROWING. 



165 



Large, four-section harrows covering i8 to 22 feet of surface are now 
largely used even on smaller farms, because of the high price of farm 
labor. One man and four horses can harrow between 30 and 40 acres 
in a single day. Because the harrow covers territory so rapidly 
and leaves the ground in such a good state of tilth, it should be used 
much more generally. Harrowing produces a finer tilth of the sur- 
face and thereby conserves the moisture already in the soil. Large 
lumps massed together have between them much air space. Such 
space allows the rain water to percolate to lower depths so rapidly 
that the growing plant cannot use it. At the same time, the lower- 
ing of the water level admits the surface air, which in turn dries out 
the individual lumps and robs them of their moisture. Roots will 
not develop in these open spaces, and not finding finer earth through 
which to extend themselves, soon die from lack of moisture and 
plant food. 



Reasons 

for 

harrowing 



When plowing in the spring, the newly upturned furrow should 
never be allowed to remain unharrowed over half a day. By harrowing 
the ridges will i)e levelled, clods prevented from forming, and evapora- 
tion reduced. To do this, the plowman will have to unhitch from Harrow 
the plow and hitch to the harrow just before the close of each half day-s^^^^ 
day. A small section drag drawn by an extra horse at the time of p^°'^^°s 
plowing also answers the purpose. A rotary disc in section just 
wide enough to cover the newly turned furrow, and working auto- 
matically, does tne pulverizing more thoroughly than any other meth- 
od. To the farmer in the corn districts of less than 24 inches of 
rainfall, this matter is important. To the grower in the low, wet 
districts, where the soil contains a large per cent of humus, the evap- 
oration of excess moisture is desirable. 

If the ground be plowed too wet and turns over slick, then a 
day's drying may be necessary before any harrowing is done. A . 

tooth harrow is of very little use on fall plowing, because the soil ^e* 

■' r- &' ground 

has cemented together too firmly. After sod plowing has been thor- 
oughly disced, the use of the harrow produces a finer and more uni- 
form surface. 



When desiring to tear up pieces of sod or loosen deeply the sur- 
face of a fall plowed field, the harrow teeth should be set straight, or 
almost so. Where a field is harrowed twice before planting, the teeth 
should be set at an acute angle. If the surface is of fin6 tilth, but a 
little uneven, allowing the harrow to drag over completely flat will 
do much toward producing an ideal seedbed. In all events, to se- 



Setting the 

harrow 

teeth 



166 



CORN. 



cure an even depth of planting the land should be free from ridges. 
In order to facilitate planting and to better see the line of the marker, 
the field should be harrowed crosswise just previous to planting. In 
sections of little rainfall during the summer months, and in areas 
v^here the soil »s of a fine, silty nature, it will always pay to again 
harrow fields which have been previously put in good shape, but 
have been rained upon heavily before the corn was planted. 

The harrow is of especial value as a weed killer. Newly germi- 
nated weeds have few roots and are easily torn loose. Furthermore, 
little "vveeds killed when very young do not draw out the moisture in the 
soil nor reixler the available plant food insoluble. The harrow no# 
only destroys A%eeds sprouting in the ground before the corn is 
planted, but causes the germination of other seeds which have been 
dormant because of lack of heat and moisture. 



Weeds killed 

when young 

use very 




Fig. 80. 
FIELD NOT READY FOR PLANTING. 
The surface has been allowed to dry out too much before the harrowing was 
done. The rounded shape of the clods shows that the jostling of the harrow 
was ineffective in breaking them up because of their dryness. 

Rolling. The smooth iron or wood roller is used to produce an 
even surface and to settle the surface soil upon the sub-soil. Corn 
ground which has been plowed in the fall, or ground of a silty nature 
which is spring plowed, does not need rolling before planting. It is 
usually very compact. But in loose soils of a sandy nature, or porous 



PLANTING. 



167 



soils which have just been freshly spring plowed, the roller, if heavy, 
is valuable in je-establishing the capillarity of the surface soil. In 
the hands of one who looks upon the roller as an implement for 
smoothing only, it is often a very unprofitable tool, because, if the 
surface is left without a light harrowing the evaporation of moisture 
soon dries out the soil. 

Corrugated lollers which leave the surface slightly ridged prevent 
rapid evaporation of the soil moisture. 

First. The uneven surface reduces the velocity of the wind near 
the ground. 

Second. The dust mulch thus formed breaks off the upward dis- 
charge of the capillary tubes. Furthermore, this type of roller also 
grasps and crushes the larger clods instead of simply burying them 
unbroken. The sub-surface packer invented by H. W. Campbell to 
meet the demands of the more arid districts, settles by excessive 
weight the sub-strata of soil, but leaves the surface loose to conserve 
the moisture which is present at greater depths. In districts of con- 
stant winds of high velocity, this point is essential. 

PLANTING WITH CHECK-ROWER. With the growing in- 
terest in the selection and breeding of seed corn, together with the en- 
<ieavor for higher yields, the farmer demands of the corn planter more 
accuracy of dropping. When tested seed fails to appear and a poor 
dtand results, the planter is usually to blame. For many years the round 
hole plate has bt en almost exclusively used. The opening was large 
enough to hold the total number of kernels for an entire hill. The 
check wire caused the drop, turning the plate to the next opening 
with each click of the machine. The one advantage of this planter 
was the fact that this hole being so large, kernels of varying sizes 
could be accommodated. Little attention has been paid to the grading 
of corn until within the last few years. In seeking to secure accuracy, 
this larger hole was reduced until it admitted but one kernel. More 
holes were made in the plate, which was continuously turned by the 
main axle of the planter. This formed a cumulative drop which, when 
sufficient kernels had been counted out, were checked off by the wire. 
For growers who produce corn of a uniform type and who grade the 
seed closely, the edge drop plate has proved of greater accuracy. How- 
ever, in planting kernels of different lengths the plates must be cali- 
brated closely. 

Every farmer knows the tendency of planters to carry the kernels 



Edge-drop 



168 



CORN. 



before droppini:^. which results in a zigzag appearance of the corn 
crossways of the field. In purchasing a planter, this factor should 
be looked into. The valves should work quickly. 

The runner lurrow-openers which have always been used on corn 
planters, sometimes fail to give satisfaction on sod land, or in fields 
which are crowded with trash. The planter will often ride out, leav- 
ing the corn uncovered. In an effort to prevent this di:-c furrow-open- 



Types of 
planter 
wheels 




(Courtesy Janesville irachine Co.) Fig. 81. 

CORN PLANTER. 
Showing the long curved runner furrow-openers and open wheels. 

ers are sometimes attached. The disc also pulverizes the soil in 
which the kernel is to rest. Except under the conditions mentioned 
these attachments are unnecessary. Both single and double-disc fur- 
row-openers tend to make the planter harder to guide. 

On the rougher and more rolling corn lands, the concave planter 
wheel is used because the fields are harrowed immediately after 
planting. This practice does away with two disadvantages, features 
of the concave wheel ; the tendency to leave a furrow for washing, 
and the smooth surface which dries out badly. The open wheel is 
better for level lands not subject to washing. It has a little more 



TIME OF PLANTING. 



169 



draft, but leaves no flat surface to bake in the sun. The double wheel 
tends to cover the hill more surely. 

Improved methods of culture together with the increasing preval- 
ence of weeds have caused the practice of checking corn to grow in 
popularity. Of 200 representative farmers from different parts of 
Iowa, 92 per cent check their corn. The reasons given for so doing 
were the more effective eradication of the weeds, and in some cases in- 
creased yield. 

On ground which has been well prepared and which is not too 
hilly, it is possible for one man to plant 12 to 15 acres per day. The 
objections raised to checked corn are a greater tendency to blow objections t 
down in heavy summer winds and the fact that the roots are not corn^^* 
so equally distributed throughout the soil. There is practically no 
difference in the yield per acre between drilled and checked corn, 
providing there are the same number of plants per acre. 

Time of Planting. " The best yields and most mature corn are pro- 
duced by planting corn early. Years of experience have proved this 
fact conclusively. The length of season in a given locality determines 
the date of planting. In Iowa, corn must be planted 
as soon as the ground is properly prepared and sufff- 
ciently warm, not colder than 55 degrees Fahrenheit. 
Very little seed is in the ground before May ist, and 
the northern counties are even later. On sod land, 

1 ,, . . , , , . Date of 

Where the cut worm is quite prevalent, late planting planting 
must be practised. As better seed corn is used from 




Fig. 82. 

ROUND -HOLE- 
DRILL-DROP 

PLANTER PLATE. 

Planter plate show- 
ing the compara- 
tive size and num- 
ber of holes. 



year to year, earlier planting will come more into 
vogue. Corn of strong vitality can be placed in cold 
ground with less risk than that of weak germinating 
power. 



by length 
of season 



Soil conditions have as much to do in determining the date of 
planting as does the weather. For example, farmers on the soil of Plant 
Missouri loess in northwestern Iowa, can plant as much as 14 days seed"^ 
earlier than farmers in the central part of the state in the same lati- ^^^ 
tude, but located on the undrained, low soil of the Wisconsin glacial 
deposit. 

From Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois is taken this table showing yield 
of air-dry corn from plantings at different dates, at the Experiment 
Station at Urbana. 



170 



CORN. 



Bushels of Air-dry Corn per Acre. 

Plantings. 1888 1889 1890 Average 

April 22 52 

April 27-29 80 44 67 64 

May 4-6 87 51 71 70 

May 11-15 86 56 75 72 

May 19-20 87 50 71 69 

May 26-27, 83 55 74 71 

June 1-5, 81 50 61 64 

June 8-13 50 50 60 53 

on differ* Hunt, in his "Cereals of America," gives the following summary 

eut dates ^j ^|^g work of iill the Experiment Stations. 



STATION 

Illinois 

Indiana ...... 

Kansas 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma . . . 

South Dakota 



SEASONS 



EARLIEST 



BEST 



April 22-26 |May 11-18. 

May 1-2 |May 1-8... 

April 18-20 |May 1 

May 18-25 June 1-8... 

April 26 iMay 14-24. 

March 21-28 JMarch 28. . 

I April 18... 
May 1 May 15-25. 



LATEST 

June 17-22 

May 28-30 

May 29-30 

June 15-July 2. 

June 4-12 

April 25 

May 13 

June 10 



Dates of corn planting as shown by the Cereal Gazette* of May, 
1908. 

District No. i, of which O'Brien County is the center, will 
begin May loth. 

District No. 2, of which Hancock and Cerro Gordo are the 
center, will begin May loth. 

District No. 3, of which Fayette is the center, will begin about 
May loth. 
District No. 4, Crawford in center, will begin May loth. 

District No. 5, Story in center, began May 6th. 

District No. 6, Jones in center, began May 5th. 

District No. 7, Montgomery center, began about May ist. 

District No. 8, Lucas center, began May first. 

District No. 9, JefTerson and Henry in center, began about 
May 5th. 

In the June Report the following figures show the status of corn 
planting by June i, 1908. 

District No. i, 83 per cent. 

No. 2, 77 

" No. 3 78 

No. 4 85 

No. 5, 86 

No. 6 84 

No. 7 84 

No. 8, 75 

No. 9 75 



DEPTH OF PLANTING. 



171 



By a few personal letters to farmers in different parts of Iowa in 
the spring of 1908, the dates of planting in their respective localities 
were found to be as follows. 



COUNTY 



TOWN 



DATE OF PLANTING 
Week Month 



Sioux I Hawarden . . . 

Allamakee I Waukon 

Dallas (Dallas Center. 

Mills IGlenwood .... 

Page Blanchard . . . 



Second and Third. | May 

Second |May 

Second iMay 

Second [May 

First and Second.. |May 



Depth of Planting. The depth of planting corn is controlled by 
first, the physical properties of the soil and its fertility. A stiff, sticky 
clay, retentive of moisture and lacking in humus, should be planted 
shallow. Kernels covered more than two inches in such a soil will, 
if the surface receives a beating rain, remain dormant a long time 
because of lack of oxygen. The plant food is not in available form 
except near the surface. A loose, sandy soil requires deeper planting 
because of a lower water level. Although the moisture level of sod 
land is usually very low, as a rule it is difficult to plant corn very deep 
in such soil. 

Second. The position of the water level. Farmers of north cent- 
ral Iowa cannot plant deeply because the water level is near the sur- 
face. This excess of moisture removes two essentials for germination 
— warmth and oxygen. The western edge of the corn belt is lacking 
in moisture, consequently the planter must be set more deeply. It 
is seldom advisable to plant deeper than 2 1-2 inches. It will be re- 
membered that the young plant depends entirely upon being nourished 
from the endosperm of the seed, or the food supply within the kernel, 
until such time as it is able to draw its food directly, from the 
soil. Should this kernel of corn be placed four or five inches beneath 
the surface of the ground, it is often found that while the seed will 
germinate, there is not enough plant food to maintain the growth of 
the sprout until it can reach the surface. Naturally, in this case the 
plant dies, while if it had been planted shallow, so that the young 
plant could have come to the surface before the plant food in the 
' kernel had been exhausted, it would have grown to maturity. 

Third. The time of planting. In the spring the atmosphere warms 
early and by penetrating the seed bed gradually raises its tempera- 
ture. Therefore, in early planting, only the surface soil is warm 
enough to germinate the kernels. The sub-surface strata is cold and 
wet. Later when the surface soil has become warmer, the seed may 
be covered to greater depth. 



Depth of 
planting 
is con- 
trolled by 
three 
conditions 



172 



CORN. 



Yield of Corn from Plantings of Different Depths. 



DEPTH 



BUSHELS PER ACRE 

1889 



AVERAGE 



1 inch 


109.7 

88.4 

lOO.S 

88.0 

73.1 

eo.3 


83.0 
83.0 
51.0 
87.0 
81.0 
92.0 


77.8 
72.8 
70.3 
58.4 
62.3 
60.3 


90.2 


2 " 


81.4 


3 " 


74.0 


4 " 


77.8 


5 " 


72.1 


6 " 


70.9 







The above figures taken from Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois, show 
from an average of three years, with corn planted at different depths, 
a few bushels in favor of the shallow planting. Of course, Illinois 
conditions are different from those of some of the other states, and 
must be interpreted accordingly. 

Distance Between the Rows. The distance be- 
tween the rows of corn varies from three feet in the 
north and west to more than six feet in the southeast. 

The factors which decide how far apart the rows 
should be are ; first, the fertility of the soil. A thin 
soil, low in organic matter and especially lacking in ni- 
trogen, produces very little growth of foliage. The 
roots must feed over a large area ; consequently the 
rows are set further apart. A piece of sod land which 
tends to force the corn along and produce excessive 
tillering, may be planted in rows closer togeth- 
er. 




EDGE DROP 
PLANTER PLATE. 
This plate takes into 
consideration the 
thickness of the 
kernel which Is 
the most constant 
character. 



Factors 



The custom of the localit}' or even the section of the corn belt. 
The Georgia Experiment Station in 1897, 1898, and 1899, found that 
better results could be obtained by having the rows four feet apart 
influMicing with only one sialk every three feet in each row. In 1900, the same 
be1;ween Station found that on ground which could produce around 30 bushels 
^°^^ of corn per acre, the best results could be had with the rows four 
feet apart with one plant every two feet in the row. The Indiana Ex- 
periment Station, in carrying on investigations for a period of eight 
years, secured the best yields with planting in rows three feet apart 
and one plant every 10 3-4 inches in the row. 

Under Iowa conditions, the majority of growers usually check 
three feet, six inches both ways, making 3,556 hills per acre. By such 
a plan, each hill has 1764 square inches of surface. The cultivators 
as usually used on the farm are set for this width, and there is no line 
of weeds left in the center between the rows. On the poorer soils 
of the state a three-foot, eight inch planter is used, which plants 3,240 



NUMBER OF STALKS PER HILL. 173 

hills per acre. Sornetimes the corn is planted three feet eight inches 
one way, and a three foot six inch check wire is used. 

Third, The nature of growth of variety is another factor influencing" 
the closeness of planting. Large, rank growing varieties require great- 
er distance between the rows, because of over-shading. Low growing 
kinds requiring short seasons may be planted more closely. 

The occasional planting of other crops with corn may make a great- 
er distance between hills and rows desirable. 

Number of Stalks Per Hill. There is more or less difference of 
opinion upon this particular point. In the early years of corn grow- 
ing in the central West, the number of kernels per hill was con- 
trolled by such an adage as "Always plant five kernels, one for the 
blackbird, one for the crow, one for the cut worm and two to grow." 
However, it may be said that the amount of corn that can be pro^ 
duced on a given area of land is determined by the soil, seed, and kernefs' °^ 
management, together with the climatic conditions. Naturally, land wlthW 
rich in fertility can maintain a greater number of stalks per acre than 
can poorer land. While in the former case four or five kernels to 
the hill may not be too many, in the latter two kernels to the hill 
would be sufficient. Three kernels to the hill is generally considered 
as the standard, and it may be said that there is very little good corn- 
producing land that can not maintain three good stalks to the hill. 



soil 




Fig. S4. 

CORN PLANTER. 
Showing disc furrow-openers. 



If corn is planted thick on land of poor fertility, the result is 
stover and not ears. On the other hand, two or three kernels are often 



174 



CORN. 



Test at 
Illinois 
Station 



planted to the hill on land so rich in fertility that much greater yields 
would have been secured by planting four and possibly five kernels. 
In the latter case, with two and three kernels a great many suckers 
are produced, sometimes as many as two to three per hill. Had there 
been four or five kernels to the hill in this case, the fertility of the 
ground would have been utilized in producing stalks of corn bearing 
ears, rather than suckers. 

Of 200 representative Iowa corn growers corresponded with, 
60 per cent planted from three to four kernels, and none more than 
five kernels per hill. 

The Illinois Experiment Station carried on experiments to deter- 
mine what influence the number of kernels per hill had on yield. Tho 
results are shown in the following table : 



rKRCKNT OK STAND 



YIELD OF BLSHELS 



Date of , 
Plantinfr' 



Five 
Kernels 



Four 
Kernels 



Three 
Kernels 



Two 
Kernels 



Five 
Kernels 



Four 
Kernels 



Three 
Kernels 



Two 
Kernels 



April 29. 
May 6... 
May 13.. 
May 20.. 
May 27.. 
June 3. . 
Average 



92.5 


93.7 


63.5 


62.5 


67.0 


63.6 


37.5 


82.5 


91.4 


100.0 


100.0 


63.3 


58.8 


65.0 


88.8 


90.6 


93.7 


103.1 


53.8 


52.3 


55.5 


88.1 


84.4 


92.7 


109.4 


62.2 


56.8 


62.0 


74.4 


63.6 


77.1 


90.6 


45.8 


38.8 


33.9 


69.8 


76.6 


85.4 


79.7 


29.5 


26.9 


25.3 


82.7 


83.3 


85.4 


91.0 


53.6 


47.8 


46.5 



33.8 
55.8 
60.0 
56.1 
27.8 
20.7 
42.3 



On average good corn land, the yield per acre in shelled corn in- 
creases with the number of stalks per hill up to four or five. After 
this the amount of stover increases and the amount of grain decreases. 
As the number of stalks increases to the hill, the number of good, 
strong seed ears will decrease after two and three stalks to the hill, 
and there will be found more inferior ears and nubbins. 

The following tables are taken from the results of experimental 
work carried on by the Agricultural Extension Department of the 
Iowa State College. The experiments were carried on at various 
county farms. Representing as they do, almost all the conditions of 
soil and climate in Iowa, they are very valuable to the farmer in the 
corn belt. 





THICKNESS 


OF PLANTING,- Sioux County. 






















1^ = 


3 
a 




a a! «(/! 






1 



1 


-3 
It 


|2 


3 

z 


ll 

if 


1 


39.4 


79.7 


26.6 


.8 


38.4 


2.7 


2.9 


8.4 


71.7 1 9.8 


10.1 


ly. 


51.3 


87.6 


44.0 


1.3 


• 14.7 


1.8 


1.6 


9.7 


74.9 1 8.0 


7.4 


2 


60.9 


87.8 


58.9 


1.8 


11.9 


2.3 


1.7 


7.6 


76.4 


8.3 


7.6 


2y2 


63.7 


87.3 


72.7 


2.2 


5.9 


2.4 


1.1 


5.7 


79.3 


8.7 


6.3 


3 


73.4 


86.2 


86.2 


2.9 


4.2 


2.9 


1.1 


4.7 


75.7 


12.5 


5.0 


3% 


74.7 


86.9 


101.4 


3.0 


2.9 


4.7 


1.1 


4.0 


73.1 


16.2 


6.7 


4 


73.7 


86.3 


115.1 


3.5 


1.7 


4.9 


1.0 


2.9 


66.3 


23.2 


7.5 


4V* 


73.7 


85.7 


128.5 


3.9 


1.9 


7.1 


1.1 


2.5 


62.5 


26.9 


8.1 


5 


72.2 


85.1 


141.8 


4.3 


1.8 


8.3 


1.0 


1.9 


53.4 


35.2 


9.7 



KOSSUTH— CHICKASAW— GREENE. 



175 



Kossuth County. 

An Average of One Test in 1905 and Four Tests in 1906. 



'AX o 



2 ^- 



Ma 



■50 



>^ .-4 



-'1 -t^ ,.-, C v 
S c3 m o^ 



to-t* 






^ « . 


13 • 


*3 






sg 


a.ffis: 


"-•^ 


> s =^ 


►h 


h h 


<K 3 


<U (8 


«<aK 


P-iW 


Ph« 



P-(OQ 



CO 







s -*^ 


H 






t/^ . 


o2 







1 

1^> 

2 

2% 
3 

4 

5 



38.4 
46.1 
58.4 
66.7 
75.4 
78.7 
82.6 
81.3 
82.5 



87.6 
88.1 
88.8 
89.0 
87.9 
88.2 
87.5 
84.2 
80.6 



29.2 

44.1 

59.2 

74.2 

87.9 

102.9 

116.7 

126.3 

134.3 



.9 
1.3 
1.8 
2.2 
2.6 
3.1 
3.5 
3.8 
4.0 



76.7 


5.4 


43.6 


4.4 


27.4 


4.5 


15.7 


4.6 


11.3 


4.3 


7.8 


5.9 


5.9 


6.6 


3.9 


6.9 


2.5 


7.8 



2.9 
1.4 
1.2 
1.2 
1.6 
1.0 
.7 
.9 
1.9 



4.9 
3.9 
4.1 
3.4 
3.3 
2.4 
2.2 
2.0 
1.6 



74.5 


14.8 


78.1 


13.1 


79.5 


12.0 


80.3 


12.7 


81.2 


10.7 


82.8 


12.1 


82.6 


12.1 


82.8 


11.9 


81.9 


12.9 



5.8 
4.8 
4.4 
3.3 
3.9 
2.7 
3.0 
3.3 
3.6 



Chickasaw County, 1906. 
There were five samples of seed represented in this test, one plot of 
each number of kernels per hill being plantd from each sample. 



111 


51 


■0 


% stand at 

Harvest 

Based on 3 

stalks 


TO 




e 

03 


-a 

3 

s 


■a 


=2 a! 


B 
'3 
3 

z 


1 


1 


30.7 


83.8 


27.9 


.8 


22.0 


1.7 


5.0 


2.8 


76.4 


11.1 


9.7 


IV? 


40.8 


80.7 


40.4 


1.2 


13.0 


2.3 


2.3 


3.0 


83.5 


9.3 


4.2 


2 


50.6 


84.7 


56.5 


1.7 


9.2 


3.3 


1.7 


2.6 


87.2 


7.6 


2.6 


2y7 


55.7 


86.6 


72.2 


2.2 


6.6 


2.6 


.0 


1.3 


87.8 


9.6 


1.3 


3 


59.7 


79.1 


79.1 


2.4 


3.0 


4.8 


3.0 


.6 


82.0 


14.3 


3.1 


3Vo 


59.0 


75.0 


87.5 


2.6 


4.4 


7.6 


1.6 


.5 


78.0 


17.2 


4.3 


4 


68.9 


76.3 


101.4 


3.1 


4.2 


5.6 


2.8 


1.0 


77.6 


16.9 


4.5 


4Vo 


63.1 


79.2 


118.8 


3.6 


4.8 


8.7 


1.6 


.4 


68.0 


27.2 


4.4 


5 


60.1 


75.8 


126.3 


3.8 


1.8 


12.7 


1.1 


.0 


63.6 


29.4 


7.0 











Greene County, 


[906. 










o fc 

IP 
z« 


ll 


■a 

ll 




tnXt 
^1= 


o 
3 


c 


3 

£ 


■a 

U en 




B 

'S 

3 

z 


u 



1 


1 


52.4 


91.1 


30.4 


.9 


127.0 


3.9 


6.3 


12.4 


65.8 


12.0 


9.7 


IVo 


62.3 


89.8 


44.9 


1.4 


68.4 


8.9 


3.8 


11.9 


68.5 


12.0 


7.5 


2 


91.9 


90.7 


60.5 


1.8 


47.5 


9.4 


3.5 


11.8 


73.5 


8.8 


5.9 


2% 


73.7 


87.3 


72.8 


2.2 


30.7 


10.4 


2.6 


8.3 


76.8 


9.0 


5.9 


3 


74.1 


86.9 


86.9 


2.6 


20.0 


11.2 


2.1 


5.9 


78.4 


9.4 


6.3 


3% 


73.9 


86.0 


100.3 


3.0 


15.0 


16.4 


4.5 


4.3 


74,7 


14.7 


6.3 


4 


73.5 


85.0 


113.3 


1 3.4 


13.6 


1 19.6 


2.2 


2.8 


1 .6.0 


1 14.0 


1 7.2 


4y? 


76.5 


88.4 


132.6 


4.0 


ri.2 


22.5 


1.4 


2.5 


68.8 


19.8 


8.9 


5 


73.9 


81.6 


136.0 


1 4.1 


11.7 


27.2 


1.4 


1.6 


1 67,9 


1 21.3 


1 !^1 



176 



CORN. 



Story County. 
Average of Three Years" \\ ork Uuring 1905, 1906 and 1907. 





C a 




Per cent 
Stand at 
Harvest 
bas.}d on 
3 Stalks. 






H 

0; OS 

a. pa 


Si 


e e 
a 


ll. 


s a 

0).- 

CUiZ 


ll 
— 


1 


31.1 


87.6 


29.2 


.9 


19.8 


4.9 


1.1 


15.6 


67.1 


11.1 


6.2 


1V2 


42.1 


87.8 


43.9 


1.3 


10.2 


3.6 


.4 


14.0 


73.4 


7.5 


5.1 


2 


50.9 


90.5 


60.3 


1.8 


3.1 


3.8 


-.7 


11.3 


77.8 


7.0 


3.8 


2V? 


59.3 


89.7 


74.8 


2.2 


2.6 


5.0 


.7 


6.0 


80.6 


9.3 


4.1 


3 


65.8 


89.7 


89.7 


2.7 


1.2 


6.0 


.1 


6.3 


79.8 


9.8 


4.1 


3^ 


68.9 


85.7 


100.0 


3.0 


2.3 


10.8 


.3 


4.8 


79.5 


12.1 


3.6 


4 


70.0 


85.2 


113.6 


3.4 


4.2 


16.7 


.6 


3.6 


77.1 


15.4 


3.8 


i% 


69.9 


82.8 


124.2 


3.7 


1.4 


15 8 


.4 


3.1 


74.4 


17.3 


5.2 


5 


74.8 


80.6 


134.3 


4.0 


1.8 


21.9 


.5 


2.6 


71.4 


20.6 


6.4 




Fig. 86. 
(Courtesy Kaylor Roller Fork Co.) 
ROLLER-FORK FOR CORN 
PLANTER. 
The rollers in the fork allow the 
check wire to work much more 
freely. It prevents the button 
from catching. 
No. 1. Side view. 
No. 2. Complete. 

Polk County. 
Summary of Three Experiments in 1905 and 1906. 







n 


— -w <;. C VC 

C « M C.^ 

a.— c„ — 












0) ilJ 

alls; 2 


01-- 
4, 3 


94 

si 


1 


33.6 


75.7 


25.2 


.8 


20.7 


5.9 


9.0 


14.1 


69.0 


9.1 


7.8 


IM. 


47.1 


78.2 


39.1 


1.2 


9.6 


5.8 


1.5 


10.1 


75.6 


7.6 


6.7 





59.0 


82.S 


54.9 


1.7 


8.1 


5.8 


1.0 


11.7 


76.7 


7.1 


4.5 


2% 


67.1 


7t».2 


66.0 


2.0 


8.5 


4.8 


1.3 


8.6 


81.3 


5.1 


5.0 





71.4 


7:^.9 


73.9 


2.2 


4.1 


9.6 


1.6 


10.4 


76.7 


7.9 


4.9 


-.m 


72.1 


72.;; 


84.4 


2.5 


3.4 


9.7 


.9 


6.4 


73.6 


12.2 


7.8 


4 


73.1 


1 71.1 


94.8 


2.8 


2.2 


10.4 


1.1 


6.1 


77.4 


9.4 


7.1 


4\n 


76.7 


CS 3 


102.5 


3.1 


2.6 


10.3 


.8 


7.7 


70.7 


13.5 


8.1 


^ 


75.7 


1 r,5.s 


109.7 


3.3 


2.5 


12.8 


.9 


5.7 


70.7 


16.9 


6.6 



MARSHALL— CEDAR. 



177 



Marshall County. 
Summary of Experiments with Eight Lots of Seed During Thre: 

Years, 1905- 1906- 1907. 





CO tl 


sC 


S S M 0.a 


IL.. 


a u 


._. 


"S"^ 


10 


*^-^ 


c^ c 


ci 




Be 




C t^ (1) *j 


>|3 







si 

few 


Ah a; 


S =3 b 


si 

P-x. 


^ = 

(r^ 


1 


42.0 


73.4 


24.5 


.7 


127.4 


2.7 


4.4 


3.1 


72.5 


5.8 


18.6 


m 


50.7 


8L9 


41.0 


L2 


81.2 


2.9 


2.7 


3.7 


74.0 


7.1 


15.2 


2 


60.5 


77.3 


51.5 


1.6 


52.7 


2.2 


3.7 


3.3 


76.1 


4.6 


16.1 


2V^ 


65.6 


75.9 


63.3 


L9 


46.7 


2.9 


3.0 


3.0 


75.9 


4.8 


16.2 


3 


68.7 


72.9 


72.9 


2.2 


33.0 


3.7 


4.7 


2.5 


75.7 


4.7 


17.1 


3M. 


71.9 


73.2 


85.4 


2.6 


24.8 


3.9 


3.4 


2.0 


76.6 


5.9 


15.4 


4 


78.2 


69.8 


93.1 


2.8 


21.2 


3.1 


3.4 


2.3 


74.1 


6.7 


16.7 


4% 


75.2 


67.6 


101.4 


3.0 


19.4 


4.3 


2.7 


1.5 


71.3 


6.2 


20.9 


5 


81.5 


63.1 


105.2 


3.2 


20.0 


5.2 


4.5 


1.3 


69.0 


10.9 


18.8 




Fig. 87. 

SINGLE ROW COMBINED LISTER AND DRILL. 
Used in very dry soils in order to get the corn deep into the 
ground so as to obtain moisture. 



Cedar County. 

Summary of Test with Two Lots of Seed in 1907. 



S S' i. 


1! 


u c 


S 

u '■• T' 




OJJS 


1 


32.3 


3.0 


75.8 


14.8 


6.4 


ly? 


46.0 1 


■i' ^ 3.5 


80.7 


10.8 


4.9 


2 


55.5 


•^ ' 2.9 


82.4 


10.2 


4.4 


2y? 


65.7 


2.8 


85.4 


9.4 


2.3 


3 


74.8 


2.0 


87.7 


6.7 


3.5 


3% 


82.8 


2.5 


85.7 


8.6 


3.1 


4 


88.6 


1.2 


86.4 


9.9 


2.3 


4y. 


88.3 


1.6 


84.2 


11.2 


2.9 


5 


95.0 


1.2 


81.7 


14.6 


2.4 



178 



CORN. 



Montgomery County. 
Summary of Five Tests in 1906 and 1907. 





»2 
II 


c a 

U il 

5 


Hi 


1.5 




1 


44.5 


11.1 


65.0 


18.5 


5.4 


IV^ 


55.8 


8.5 


70.9 


15.9 


4.4 


2 


65.3 


9.0 


72.1 


14.5 


4.3 


2Vf 


71.0 


6.9 


76.9 


13.4 


2.9 


8 


73.5 


5.7 


76.3 


14.7 


3.2 


3Vf 


73.6 


3.7 


74.5 


18.1 


3.6 


4 


70.8 


2.8 


71.4 


21.4 


4.4 


4Vi 


71.0 


2.5 


67.8 


25.3 


4.3 


5 


72.8 


1.3 


63.7 


30.7 


4.3 




Fig. 88. 
SINGLE ROW DRILL. 
Used in drilling corn after the lister has 
opened a furrow. 



Page County. 



Summary of Three Tests During the Seasons of 1905 and 1906. 



S um 

S a- 1^ 


Bushels 
per Aero 


Per cent 
Stand Oct. 

1 


Ter cent 
Stand nt 
Harvest 
based on 
•A S.nlks. 

Av. Stalks 
per Hill nt 
Harvest. 


u u 


n 

CI eg 




is 

PhCQ 


It 


Per cent 
Nubbins. 


10 


1 


43.4 


91.2 


30.4 


.9 


58.6 


1.5 


3.2 


8.7 


78.7 


6.4 


6.1 


1% 


53.2 


85.9 


43.0 


1.3 


31.1 


2.9 


3.3 


7.4 


77.5 


10.1 


5.1 


2 


60.7 


88.2 


58.8 


1.8 


17.2 


2.7 


2.1 


8.0 


80.1 


6.7 


6.2 


2% 


66.1 


88.1 


73.4 


2.2 


9.4 


3.7 


1.2 


5.0 


79.7 


10.9 


4.4 


3 


71.3 


88.3 


88.3 


2.7 


7.8 


6.5 


2.1 


5.5 


74.6 


15.1 


4.8 


3% 


71.0 


86.4 


100.8 


3.0 


5.5 


8.3 


2.3 


3.3 


71.4 


18.8 


6.5 


4 


66.3 


82.2 


109.6 


3.3 


4.3 


11.6 


1.5 


3.2 


64.7 


24.9 


7.2 


4% 


66.5 


85.3 


128.0 


3.8 


3.4 


15.8 


2.1 


2.5 


57.5 


31.0 


9.0 


5 


66.9 


88.2 


147.0 


4.4 


2.0 


19.6 


2.6 


1.6 


53.2 


35.4 


9.7 



TAYLOR— HENRY— SUMMARY. 



179 



Taylor County. 

Summary of Two Experiments in 1906. 



Jl 

u m^ 

3 '^ fc, 


CO t 


Per cent 
Stand Oct. 


Per cent 
Stand at 
Harvest 
based on 
3 Stalks. 






<U IS 


PiCG 




a) a 

Mi 




il 


1 


43.6 


82.5 


27.5 


.8 


32.5 


2.5 


2.5 


10.6 


73.8 


7.5 


8.1 


IV? 


62.0 


89.5 


44.8 


1.3 


20.6 


1.6 


1.0 


7.4 


79.5 


8.2 


4.9 


2 


72.1 


87.0 


58.0 


1.7 


13.1 


2.8 


.8 


7.6 


77.4 


6.2 


8.7 


m 


81.9 


85.0 


70.8 


2.1 


13.7 


6.2 


1.3 


7.9 


78.8 


6.7 


6.5 


3 


83.2 


85.5 


85.5 


2.6 


4.0 


4.1 


.8 


6.0 


82.0 


6.9 


5.1 


3% 


82.0 


87.5 


102.1 


3.1 


1.9 


7.6 


.4 


3.2 


79.7 


11.9 


5.1 


4 


79.7 


86.3 


115.0 


3.5 


1.5 


10.5 


1.0 


.9 


80.3 


13.6 


5.2 


4V? 


85.4 


84.2 


126.3 


3.8 


1.9 


12.3 


1.8 


1.4 


71.9 


20.4 


6.2 


5 


82.2 


86.2 


143.3 


4.3 


.3 


14.6 


.3 


.6 


66.1 


25.0 


8.2 



Henry County — 1907. 



^ 

p « 1, 


pa - 




1^ 


It 




1 


23.1 


13.5 


71.5 


9.3 


5.7 


1% 


35.8 


9.3 


74.9 


12.5 


3.3 


2 


46.5 


8.5 


79.7 


9.4 


2.4 


2V^ 


55.0 


5.5 


78.4 


12.5 


3.8 


3 


59.0 


3.2 


82.3 


11.0 


3.5 


3% 


60.4 


1.6 


77.4 


17.1 


3.9 


4 


54.6 


1.5 


62.8 


27.8 


7.9 


41/2 


54.3 


.4 


58.0 


35.3 


6.3 


5 


51.3 


.1 


50.5 


40.7 


8.7 



SUMMARY OF 39 EXPERIMENTS IN TWELVE COUNTIES 
DURING THE YEARS OF 1905, 1906, 1907. 



m 


.22 


"So 


Per cent 
Stand at 
Harvest 
based on 
.S Stalks. 


to -** 

"3— to 


fci" 


Is 

- fcl 
fcl fcl 

0) a 




*i fcl 

a a 

<v a) 
PhCO 


Sw 




II 


1 


37.7 


84.1 


28.0 


.8 


55.0 


3.2 


3.9 


8.7 


72.1 


11.0 


8.2 


1% 


49.4 


85.9 


43.0 


1.3 


30.6 


3.4 


2.0 


7.2 


76.0 


10.7 


6.0 


2 


59.1 


86.7 


57.8 


1.7 


19.7 


3.8 


1.7 


7.1 


78.5 


8.7 


5.6 


2% 


65.6 


85.7 


74.7 


2.2 


14.3 


4.6 


1.3 


5.2 


80.3 


9.6 


4.9 


3 


70.7 


84.0 


84.0 


2.5 


8.9 


5.6 


1.8 


4.5 


79.4 


10.7 


5.3 


3% 


72.1 


83.2 


97.1 


2.9 


6.7 


8.1 


1.6 


3.1 


77.2 


14.1 


5.5 


4 


73.2 


81.8 


109.1 


3.3 


5.7 


9.7 


1.6 


2.4 


74.5 


16.8 


6.2 


4y2 


73.1 


81.5 


122.3 


3.7 


4.9 


11.6 


1.5 


2.2 


69.6 


21.2 


7.0 


5 


73.4 


80.2 


133.7 


4.0 


4.0 


14.5 


1.4 


1.5 


65.9 


25.1 


7.6 



180 CORN. 

NOTES. 

1. These snmmarics of all the experiments which have been car 
Noithern ricd Oil with the thickness of planting in the three sections of the 

"'^"°" state show thac the highest yields in northern Iowa were secured 

where four kernels were planted per hill, or where that number of stalks 

were left to grow, there being an average of about 3.3 stalks i)er hill 

at harvest time. 

In the cential section, the largest yield was secured where five 

kernels were planted per hill, or five stalks were left. It should be 
^'ctVon carefully noted that the stands of corn secured in these experiments in 

central Iowa were lower than those secured in the northern section. 

There was only an average of 3.6 stalks per hill at harvest time. 

The largest yield in the southern section was secured where three 

to three and one-half kernels were planted, there being an average of 

Southern ^bout 2..^ to three stalks per hill at harvest time. 

section w» I _ 

2. In northern and central Iowa, the largest proportion of good 
ears, including both seed and market grades, was secured where an 
average of 2.5 kernels was planted per hill, or where that number of 
stalks was left tc develop, there being an average of a little less than 
two stalks per hill at harvest time. 

The largest pioportion of good ears was secured in southern Iowa, 
where an average of two kernels w^as planted, there being an average 
of a little less than two stalks per hill at harvest time. 

3. In studying the results of these experiments, it should be re- 
membered that there were only about 80 to 85 per cent as many 
stalks left at harvest time as there were kernels planted or stalks left 
at the time of the second cultivation. 

5 to 10 In estimating the number of kernels to be planted per hill, it 

^Yosfof should be remembered that where strong seed is planted under good 
^eveu conditions there will ordinarily be a loss of from five to ten per cent 
f,°cT in the stand. 

^^^^ 4. The study of the results of these experiments would lead to the 
conclusion that for ordinary good conditions a farmer in central 
and northern Iowa, would do well to plant so as to have three good, 
strong stalks in every hill. In southern Iowa these results indicate 
that under ordinary conditions an average of 2.5 to 3 good stalMj 
w^ould give better results than thicker planting. ^ 

Just what number would give the best results iox any one farm 
rftust be decided by the farmer himself. In general, the thickness can 
well be increased on rich soil, or with a small variety of corn, and 
decreased with tlinner soils and larger V-arieties. 



II 



WHAT IS A PERFECT STAND? 181 

5. Notice that the proportion of stalks having sucker3 decreased 
rapidly and regularly' with the increase in thickness of planting. 

6. The average of all the experiments shows that the proportion of 
barren stalks increased regularly with the increase in thickness of 
planting from ^.2 per cent where there was only one stalk per hill, to 
14.5 per cent where there were five stalks. 

7. The proportion of stalks afifected by smut was greatest where 
the thinnest planting was practiced. 

8. The proportion of seed ears decreased rapidly and regularly 
with the increase in thickness of planting. 

9. Notice that in the summary of all the experiments the propor- 
tion of nubbins was lowest where there was an average of two stalks 
per hill. The smallest proportion of worthless ears is seen to be where 

an average of 2.K kernels was planted per hill, or where that number More 

^ -J 11' nubbins 

of Stalks was left after the corn was thinned about the time of the than in 

thm 
second cultivation. The larger proportion of nubbins and worthless planting 

ears where the thin planting was practiced was probably due to the 

fact that many of the stalks produced a second small ear and that some 

of the many suckers had small ears on them. 

Notice that the increase in the proportion of nubbins and wortli- 

less ears with the increase in the thickness of planting was greater in 

the southern section than in the central and northern. The increase 

in the proportion of barren stalks was also greater. These results 

show that thick planting decreases the productiveness of the stalks 

more in the southern part of the state than it does in the northern 

section. 

WHAT IS A PERFECT STAND? This question is so often 
asked that it is here partially answered. 

On Rich River Valley Soil. It is only during a season of compara- 
tively little rainfall that the farmers on the river lowlands are able to 
grow a crop at all. At least three to four stalks per hill should be 
the standard on such land. (See foot note.) 

Upland Thin Soil. At Institutes and Short Courses one quite 
often hears the remark that as many stalks cannot be grown to the 
hill now as 20 or even 10 years ago. The fact that the virgin fer- 

SOUTHERN IOWA ROUGH LANDS. 
Those are underlaid with hardpan, and in a dry year two stalks per hill would be suffi- 
cient. A lack of plant food and the fact that the corn roots cannot penetrate 
ihe sub-soil to secure moisture, requires a sjmaller number of stalks per hill. 

NORTHERN IOWA, LOW, I'NDRAI.NED SOIL. 

The years of shortage in early spring precipitation are a boon to the corn growers of 

the northern area of the Wisconsin Drift. Three stalks or even more should here 

be the standard, because the soil is well stocked with potential and available plant 

food. I 



1S2 



CORN. 



Missing bill 

means a 

decrease of 

yield 



When to 
replant 



tility r.f the soil has been drawn upon heavily for a scries of years by 
continuous cropping, has begun to make itself evident in diminished 
yields. A year of heavy precipitation is the only time when a farmer 
whose soil is thin can think of growing three stalks per hill with suc- 
cess. 

Growing for Show Purposes. The s])irit of professionalism has Lo 
some extent entered the field of corn exhibiting. Breeders who grow 
samples to win for advertising purposes prefer from two to 2.5 stalks 
per hill, even on strong land. 

This discussion has been taken up with the idea of getting at the 
reason for the various views upon the subject. The standard of three 
kernels per hill has served well up to date, but its practicability is 
going to be questioned in many sections before long. In order to 
continue its use a system of farming must be adopted which will 
maintain the fertility of the soil. 

Replanting Corn. The stand of corn is frequently found to be poor, 
with a great many one-stalk and missing hills. This is due chiefly to 
poor seed, to a lack of preparation of the seed bed, to insect enemies, 
and to climatic conditions. A missing hill means a decrease in yield. 
Not infrequently a great deal of replanting is carried on, which, it 
may be said, is not very profitable. In the first place, the plants from 
the seed that was replanted will not be found to be so far advanced 
as those about them at the time of the first cultivation. They will not 
shed their pollen at the same time, and they often will not send their 
shoots out until so late that the greater portion of the pollen from the 
other stalks has fallen. This accounts for the nubbin ears which are 
always found to a great extent on replanted corn. When replanting 
is done, it is more desirable to plant with an earlier maturing variety 
of corn. This, of course, cannot be carried out w^here it is desired 
that the corn be kept pure, and in this case it could be done with 
profit only when there are from 10 to 20 per cent of the hills miss- 
ing. By replanting an earlier variety than was formerly planted, the 
silks and tassels will come out more nearly the time the rest of the 
plants of the field send forth their shoots. When the missing hills 
are less than 10 per cent, it is not deemed advisable to replant, ami 
should the misses be more than 20 per cent the best results will be 
secured if the entire field is replanted. 



DRILLING CORN. Sod land is frequently put into corn in this 
manner. On very fertile soil which contains sufficient moisture, the 
hills may be 9 inches apart. Twelve inches is more desirable, and even 



LISTING CORN. 



183 



a distance of 14 or 16 inches produce heavy yields. Suckers are pro- 
duced quite abundantly on sod land. Thicker drilling will have a ten- 
dency to eliminate this evil. 

At the Illinois Station, corn checked three feet eight inches apart 
and plowed but one way, produced 71.7 bushels per acre, compared ft^"^ 
with 60.8 bushels where the field was drilled in rows three feet eight ^^fl^^ 
inches apart, with the stalks 11 inches apart in the row. This differ- 
ence is accounted for by the fact that although the checked piece was 
cultivated but one way, it was much freer from weeds. 

The number of stalks per acre in a field of corn drilled in rows 
three feet six inches, with stalks ten inches apart in the row, will be 
14,934. If 14 inches in the row, 10,667. In figuring the per cent stand 
in drilled corn, step off a distance equal to 100 hills 10 or 14 inches 
apart, or any other number of inches, depending upon thickness of 
drilling. If the kernels were drilled 10 inches apart, the 100 hills 
would be 1,000 inches, or 83 1-3 feet. Count the stalks in this meas- 
ured length. If there prove to be but 80 stalks, then the percentage of 
stand is 80. 

LISTING CORN. The lister is not a familiar implement to the Kansas 

r r IT 1 T11- • 1-1^1 rr '^® home 

farmer of central iowa and illmois. ihe western corn states, Kansas of the 
and Nebraska, and parts of Iowa and Missouri, use the lister almost to 
the exclusion of the planter. The lister was introduced into Kansas 
in 1882. In 1902 it was estimated that three-fifths of the area in corn 
in Kansas was listed. In these sections the soil is so loose as to allow 
the water level to settle very low. The winds of summer carry off 
much of the moisture and the storms of August and September blow 
down the checked or surface planted corn. Because of washing, the 
lister is not adapted to hilly land. On the low, tiled fields of the 
central states listing has proved a failure. Tests at the Illinois Sta- 
tion indicate lower yields and later maturity in listed than in checked 
corn. 

After many trials on plots at the Experiment Station of Kansas, ?^^°^^?.°' 

r 1 Ti ^ 1- ^- • t u 1 1 J.W.Rcbinson 

It was found that listmg gave an average increase of 3.57 bushels, or Towanda 
4.16 per cent per acre over surface planted corn. In 1888, during a ^-^'^^^^ 
dry season, an increase of 15 per cent was noted. 

The following tables* are taken from the records of J- W. Robin- 
son, of Towanda, Kansas. They cover a period of 22 years and take 
into account a crop of from 1,000 to 2,000 acres annually. In com- 
paring the cost of handling an acre of clean ground by the two meth- 
ods, listing vs. check-rowed, the figures show 75 cents in favor of the 
former. 

Address by Theo. W. Morse, before the Thirty-first Annual Meeting of the Board of 
Agrirultiire of Kansas. 



1S4 



CORN. 



LISTED. 

Listiiii,^ $ .35 

Twice harrowing^ 20 

Once with "Go-Devil" 15 

Three cultivations 75 

Cutting weed.s lO 

Total $1.55 

CllKCK-ROWTXG. 

Plowing; and harrowing $1.10 

Check-rowing 25 

Harrowing once 10 

Three cultivations 75 

Cutting weeds 10 

Total $2.30 

Preparing the Ground. As listing is not done until the time 
Preparing comes for the corn to be in the ground, the land usually lies idle until 
the surface ^.j^g ^^^^ q£ i\ijiy Therefore, some kind of surface treatment must be 
given the soil. Discing early in the spring loosens the surface layer 
and tends to conserve the moisture. If weeds come on rapidly and 
grow rank another vigorous discing may be applied. Furthermore, 
the disc levels the last year's corn rows and splits the stubs so they 
are less bother in cultivating. Where listing is to follow small grain, 
discing the stubble in the fall conserves the moisture and prevents 
the weeds from seeding. 

The partial failures of listed corn may often be traced to th( 
\vasteful loss of moisture in the early part of the season, because o! 
allowing the surface soil to bake and grow up to grass. 

The Use of the Lister. The lister is simply a double mold-boarr 
plow. By arrangement of the whiffletree the distance between thi 
pianted°in rows is the Same as in checked corn, although in the southwest the' 
furrow' rows are often but 40 inches apart. The weed seeds and foul, 
earth are thrown onto the ridges away from the rows of sproutin| 
corn. Hence, the corn has a chance to start in a clean furrow. Man) 
farmers recognize this when they find the corn more difficult to keel 
clean in a year when their lister failed to scour. 

The listers which were first invented had an incomplete turn of 
the mold-board which left an edge of the surface of the ground 
sticking out instead of forming a rounded ridge of fresh earth whicM| 
was less pregnant with weed seeds. Even with the best listers, ground 
which has not been previously disced and loosened, but rolls up in 
lumps, will also do the same thing. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 185 

On many large areas a combined riding lister is used ; that is, a 
drill attachment at the rear of the lister drops the corn and two small 
shovels or discs cover the kernels. For doing very uniform work, ustei 
through all kinds of soils, this lister is the best implement, especially 
on level land. A walking lister may also have this combined attach 
ment. Often the lister is drawn alone and the drilling is done with 
a one-horse drill, or a two-row planter is used. A planter does not 

Two row 

follow the listed furrows uniformly unless they have been turned with lister 
a two-row lister. The kernels are often dropped on the edge of the 
furrow, which gives the young plants insufficient root hold, besides 
making them hard to cultivate. 

Checking can be efficiently done in listed furrows, but the corn is 
usually not large enough to cultivate crosswise at the second plow- 
ing. Corn may be listed in ground already prepared for surface check- Double 
ing, but in such a case the soil is usually so loose that the lister will ^^ ^'^^ 
not scour satisfactorily. Stubble land is often listed with good re- 
sults. In listing ground which has been in corn the previous year, 
either the old row may be listed out or the furrow may be made 
between the rows. Double listing — listing once early and then relist- 
ing the ridge later in the season — is a more effective way of loosen- 
ing up the soil. 

The furrow-opener attachment is rapidly gaining recognition, espe- 
cially in those districts where the corn must be planted deep in order^ 
to better resist the drouth and wind. In many localities it is gradu- 
ally replacing the lister. The ground is plowed and the seed bed put opeuiug 
in proper condition by use of the disc and the harrow. An ordinary ^"^^^^^i®"* 
corn planter is then used with the furrow opener attachment. The 
corn is thus planted at a sufficient depth and may be either drilled or 
checked. This permits of a much more thorough preparation of the 
seed bed, giving the corn plant the advantage of an earlier start. With 
the use of the furrow opener attachment, the Kansas Experiment Sta- 
tion has been receiving very satisfactory results. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS : 

Many very valuable suggestions have been secured from the files 
of Wallaces' Farmer. 

In the description of the machinery used, frequent reference has 
been made to "Farm Machinery and Motors" by Davidson and Chase. 

King's "Physics of Agriculture" has been a source of considerable 
information. 

The Extension Department of the Iowa State College has afforded 
access to much data which deals with local conditions in Iowa. 



186 CORN. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Corn, 

South Carolina Bulletin No. 44. 
Corn, 

South Carolina Bulletin No. 61. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Indiana Bulletin No. yy. 
Experiments on Corn, 

West Virginia Bulletin No. 29. 
Experiments with Corn and Oats, 

Indiana Bulletin No, 55. 
Corn Culture in North Carolina, 

North Carolina Bulletin No. 171. 
Experiments with Corn, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 64, 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 26. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 17. 
Results Obtained from Trial Plots of Grain, Fodder Corn, Field 
Roots and Potatoes, 

Ottawa Bulletins Nos. 29, 32, 34, 36, 39, 44. 
Experiments with Corn. 

Kansas Bulletin No. 45. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 13. 
Experiments witli Wheat, Corn and Potatoes, 

Maryland Bulletin No. 62. 
Corn, 

Alabama Bulletin No. 7. 
Experiments with Oats and Corn, 

Indiana Bulletin No. 14. 
Methods of Corn Culture, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 82. 
Planting and Replanting Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 92. 
Eflfects of Certain Methods of Treatment upon Corn Crop, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 54. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 25. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 4. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 20. 
Xunibcr of Kernels Per Tlill. 

Illinois Bulletin No. 126. 127. 



COLLATERAL READING. 1S7 



Field Experiments with Corn, 

Illinois Circular No. 66. 
Influence of Early and Late Spring Plowing, 

Ohio Bulletin No. i. 
Corn Culture, 

North Dakota Bulletin No, 51. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 62. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 34. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 51. 
Corn, 

Alabama Bulletin No. 3. 
Corn Culture in South, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 81. 
Co-operative Field Tests During 1888, 

North Carolina Bulletin No. 65. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 46. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 58. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 55. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 30. 
Corn Culture, 

Georgia Bulletin No. 41. 
Corn Growing, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 199. 
Corn, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 122. 
Experiments with Corn, 

Ohio Circular No. 53. 
Corn, Field Tests wath, 

Kentucky Bulletin No. 118. 
Corn Experiments, 

Maryland Bulletin No. 46. 
Corn Experiments, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 56. 
Corn, Field Experiments with, 

Iowa Bulletin No. 55. 
Field Experiments with Corn, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 31. 
Experiments with Corn, 

North Dakota Bulletin No. 76. 



CHAPTER VIII 



CULTIVATION OF THE CORN CROP 



1. CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN. 

A. Object of Tillage. 

I). Harrowing- Corn. 

C. Dei)th of Cultivation. 

1 >. I'>c(|ucncy of Cultivation. 

E. Kinds of Cultivators. 

2. CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. 

CULTIVATION OF CHECKED AND DRILLED CORN 

Thorough cultivation when the corn is young means less care 
Early thereafter. By destroving the first sprouting weed seeds, the corn is 

cultivation -^ ^ t< r & t- , . . 

profitable given a better chance and less moisture is lost. Furthermore, it is 
very essential that the corn plant never get a setback. That is, there 
should be no perceptible cessation of grow^th between the time the 




Fig. 89. 

TON'GUELESS FOUR SHOVEL CITLTIVATOR. 

Used in compact soils, and on rough lands. 

plant ceases to feed upon the endosperm and the time it begins to 
draw its plant food from the soil. The maintenance of a healthy, 
dark green color and a thick, though often short stem, indicates vigor 
in a growing corn plant. 



HARROWING CORN. 



189 



The Objects of Tillage. The chief objects of tillage are: (i) To 
stir and loosen the entire soil to a sufhcient depth for the roots of the 
plants to freely extend themselves. 

(2) To pulverize the soil and mix thoroughly its constituent 
parts. 

(3) To develop various degrees of openness of texture and uni- 
formity of soil conditions suitable to the planting of seeds and the 
setting of plants. 

(4) To place beneath the surface manure, stubble, stalks and 
other organic matter, where it will not be in the way, and where it 
may be converted rapidly into humus. 

(5) To destroy or prevent the growth of weeds. 

(6) To start other weed seeds which have been dormant in the 

soil. 

(7) To modify the movements of soil moisture and soil air. 

(8) To assist in controlling soil temperature. 

Harrowing Corn. The reasons for using a harrow or weeder before 
the first cultivation of corn are to kill newly germinated weed seeds ; 
to start other weed seeds by warming the soil and admitting the air ; 
to prevent the formation of a crust; to produce a loose surface mulch ; 
and to get over a large area in a short time. 

When and how often to harrow depends upon; first, the physical 
condition of the soil and seedbed. 

A soil which has been plowed early and is naturally of a close 
grained texture, and which cements together because of beating rains, 
will bear a harrow without having its surface loosened at all. The 
harrow teeth will not move enough dirt to cover the weeds. Soil of 
a loose, sandy formation, the surface of which seems to break open 
rather than bake, can be harrowed to good advantage. The roots of 
the small grass around the hills of corn are soon freed so +hat the 
sun dries them out. A seed bed covered with clods o! trash cannot 
be properly harrowed because the teeth either roll the clods on the 
hills or dig up lumps which tear up young plants. Old root stubs 
which have not been well buried in plowing, often catch in the harrow 
teeth and drag hills of corn out with them. The surface of sod corn 
land cannot be harrowed because of the loose lying pieces of turf. 
As a rule, however, corn on new land is comparatively free from 
grass the first year. 

In the second place, when harrowing, the amount of rainfall and undesirable 

f ' °' , to harrow 

sunshine during the germination and early growmg period must be whue 

considered. is wet 



190 



CORN. 



During a wet time, wlien the sun shines but little, a harrow culti- 
vates young grass rather than kills it. Sunlight is required to dry 
out the roots which are turned up to the air. Harrowing wet ground 
puddles the surface, instead of producing a dust mulch. On the other 
hand, a dry soil requires deeper tillage than that secured by the har- 
row. Care should be taken to note that the plants are not turgid and 
full of moisture when harrowed, because they snap off easily when in 
such condition. In the sunshine they usually bend easily and allow 
the harrow to pass over them without injury. 




Fig. 90. 

DISC CULTIVATOR. 
Used especially in damp, weedy ground. 

The third consideration is the size of the corn, Wallaces' Farmer 
advocates the following as the ideal method of planting: Thoroughly 
prepare the seed bed as has been previously described. Plant the corn 
and instead of following the planter with a harrow and harrowing it 
lightly crosswise, cultivate each row with the ordinary shovel plow, 
^'^^^befwf Set the shovels to throw considerable dirt, but not enough to ridge 
corn is up ^j^^^ rows very much. If the land is level, wait two or three days, 
then harrow crossways of the field. Two things are accomplished 
by this practice. Practically all of the corn has been cultivated once^ 
The ground has been loosened to considerable depth. The harrow 
has pulverized the surface and turned to the sun many sprouting weec 
seeds. The whole process is more rapid and less tedious than care^ 
fully plowing weedy corn the first time. On hilly land, subject t( 



WEEDING. 



191 



washing, harrowing will necessarily follow immediately after culti- 
vating the newly planted field. 

When the plants are three inches in height they can be safely 
harrowed. Farmers on a loamy soil report harrowing corn six and 
eight inches high without apparent damage. 

The kind of harrow is important. The teeth of the harrow should 
be set to slant slightly backwards. Rigid teeth tear too deeply. When 
raised above the surface, the harrow frame does not drag trash. A 
light harrow is preferable to the heavier type. 




(Courtesy Janesville Machine Co.) Fig. 91. 

WEEDER. 
This is used when the weeds are small and the ground is in good condition. 



The weeder, though little used in the corn belt, destroys fine grass 
in corn where the ground is mellow and the surface free from trash. 
Much younger corn can be cultivated with a weeder than with the 
harrow or cultivator. As the weeder is of light weight, a boy with 
two horses can weed a large area in a short time. 



The weeder 

gaining 

favor 



192 



CORN. 



Corn 

should be 

cultivated 

not 

plowed 



Harrowing 

warms the 

surface 

and 

conserves 

moisture 



Deep 
cultivation 
detrimental 



Shallow 

cultivation 

best 



Depth of Cultivation. Corn should be cultivated, not plowed. The 
(leplli of cultivating; corn depends first upon the size of the corn. Corn 
which is bc'ini; cultivated for the first time has not long since begun 
feeding on the soil. \\ hen germinating and pushing to the surface, 
the sprout drew the nourishment from the endosperm of the kernel. 
Therefore, the roots have not spread very far horizontally or ver- 
tically. At this time the rows should be cultivated deeply and closely 
because it can be done without injuring the roots. There is no ques- 
tion but that a few may be disturbed and even cut off, but as the 
plant is young and the ground is moist, growth is not seriously 
checked. Deep cultivation should not be practiced after the first time 
over. 

If the cultivator is kept from the hill and set to throw dirt to 
cover the weeds, rather than to uproot them, there is left in the row 
a compact ridge which is unfit for the corn roots to penetrate. Fur- 
thermore, the ridge is so high that by the time of the second cultivat- 
ing, the weeds then growing cannot be properly covered. When a 
cultivator shovel passes close to a hill of corn, the loosened soil be- 
comes warmer because of the admitting of the air. Early in the spring, 
the roots of corn wait especially for the soil to rise in temperature 
before pushing out. This loosened soil, if it dries out. will tend also 
to direct root growth downward, because of more moisture at lower 
depths. This is particularly valuable, because a shallow rooted corn 
plant cannot so well withstand the drying winds and lowering water 
level of July and August. 

Deep cultivation cannot be done at any other time than the first 
time over. According to investigations in North Dakota, the roots 
of rows of corn three feet apart were interlaced at the end of 30 days 
after planting. The bulk of the roots w^ere within the first eight 
inches of soil. Six inches from the hill the main roots were within 
lYz to three inches of the surface. 

The depth of cultivation depends also upon the texture and forma- 
tion of the soil. Some types of soil contain a large amount of humus 
and are of a loose texture. These may be cultivated the first time with 
a surface cultivator. The corn soils of central Iowa and central Illi- 
nois require but one deep loosening, and produce the highest yields 
when tilled thereafter with surface tools. There are, however, soils 
of a compact, less friable nature ; for example, the loess soils of south- 
ern Iowa and Illinois, which require deeper cultivation. If a beatini 
rain follows the first cultivation, this soil will become so compact tha^ 
the ordinary surface cultivator simply scrapes the ground, leavinl 



i\ 



DEPTH OF CULTIVATION. 



193 



an almost impervious sub-surface strata. As more humus is intro- 
duced into these soils, the surface cultivator may come into more 
practical usefulness for laying by corn. 

The following table gives the resu-lt of an experiment to determine 
the efifect of shallow and deep cultivation as carried on by the Indiana 
Experiment Station. 

Bushels Per Acre from Deep and Shallow Culture. 

Depth of Cultivation. Average of Eight Years. 

About one inch deep 42.18 Bushels. 

About two inches deep 42.36 " 

About three inches deep 42.56 " 

About four inches deep 37-92 " * 

^Average for five years. 

This experiment extended over a period of eight years with the 
one, two and three-inch cultivations, and five years with the four- cuitfvation 
inch cultivation. It will be seen that there was a decrease in the yield roots *^^ 
when the cultivation exceeded the depth of three inches. This exper- Uwering 
iment has been corroborated by the Iowa Experiment S*^^ation and in ^^^ ^^^^ 
some parts of this state by farmers who have paid spv^eial attention 
to this investigation. 




Fig. 92. 

SURFACE CULTIVATOR. 
These shovels are made to pulverize the surface rather than 
stir to any considerable depth. 



194 



CORN. 



Proper 

cnltivatiou 

all-important 



Onltivating 

may be 

done too 

frecinently 



A lack of 

cultivation 

very 

detrimental 



According to Bulletin No. 13 of Illinois, the average of three plots 
for three years. 1888, 1889, 1890, at that Station, was 81.8 bushels per 
acre, when cultivated shallow. Three t)ther i)U)ts cultivated deeply 
for the same time averaged 74.1, or an increase of "j.y bushels in favor 
of shallow cultivation. 

Frequency of Cultivation. The number of cultivations which a 
field of corn should receive during a season depends primarily upon 
the conditions of climate and soil. The growth of both corn and 
weeds is governed by the amount of rainfall and sunshine. Often in 
the fore part of the growing season, rainy weather will keep the teams 
out of the field until the grass has almost choked the corn. Clear days 
follow wdiich push the corn forward so rapidly that not more than 
two cultivations are given to the field. A cold summer may hold 
the corn back so much that it is laid by after four cultivations and is 
yet under size. 

The key to the successful solution of this proposition is keen 
observation. There can be no set rule as to the number of times, 
other than that the corn should be kept free from weeds and grass, 
and that the surface of the ground should have the best possible mulch 
to conserve the moisture. Many fields suffer greatly from a lack of 
cultivation, either because a heavy carpet of weeds has been permitted 
to grow up, or because a great deal of moisture has been lost. There 
are, however, instances where cultivation is so frequent as to be detri- 
mental. For example, in dry seasons when the rainfall is slight, there 
is nothing gained by continually cultivating the fields that already 
have a good dust mulch on their surface. There is such a thing pos- 
sible as the surface becoming somewhat compact by lying for some 
time without being stirred, even though there is not much rainfall, but 
to keep continually cultivating corn in a dry season when there is 
a dust mulch already established, is only a means of stirring up the 
surface soil and permitting the air to penetrate deeper; thus drying it 
out to a greater extent than would have been the case had there been 
no cultivating at this time. 

There is no question but that many crops are cut short because of 
a lack of cultivation when the corn becomes too tall for the ordinary 
two-horse cultivator. The corn draws hardest upon the soil at the 
time when it is putting forth its silk and tassels and maturing the ear. 
When there is a tendency for the season to be dry, with an occasional 
shower, it would be very profitable to run a single-horse cultivator 
between the rows to keep the dust mulch established after the coin 
has become too hisrh to use the two-horse cultivator. 



A 



FREQUExXCY OF CULTIVATION. 



195 



At the Kansas Agricultural College, experiments were carried on 
to determine the advisability of frequent cultivation with the following 
results : 



Times Cultivated During 
Season 

Once 

Twice 

Three times 

Four times 

Five times 

Six times 



Rate of Yield per Acre in 
Bushels 



1891 



1895 



1896 



Total Average 



68.03 
76.06 
70.08 



23.42 
30.88 
26.45 
20.77 
20.51 
17.08 



37.62 
44.42 
43.77 
48.94 
48.27 
49.34 



30.32 
47.77 
35.11 
48.59 
34.39 
45.50 




(Courtesy David Bradley) Fig. 93. 

TWO-ROW RIDING CULTIVATOR. 
Besides having four shovels to loosen up the soil, the front shanks 

are equipped with a short knife blade which cuts oflE the weeds next 

to the hill. 



After investigating the frequency of cultivating corn for the years 
i888, 1889, 1890, the Illinois Experiment Station concluded that no 
appreciable benefit was derived from frequent cultivation nor from 
cultivating after the ordinary season for cultivating was past. The 
soil on which this trial was made was a black, friable loam. (Bulletin 
No. 13, Illinois.) ' 

Kinds of Cultivators. This is governed largely by the kind of soil, 
character of the land, and very often by the help which may be secured. 



196 



CORN. 




Fig. 94. 
CULTIVATING CHECKED CORN tHE FIRST TIME. 
Note that considerable dirt is being stirred and the shovels run close to the 
corn. The shields keep the large pieces from falling on the hills. 



KINDS OF CULTIVATOR SHOVELS. 197 

In some of the more southwestern corn producing states, the double- Doubi* 
row cultivators are frequently used and are found to be very prac- cajUTitori 
ticable. hcinj.; equipped with ft)ur Rangs of four sht)vcls each, and f^iSSi 
drawn by three horses. As one of these completes the cultivation of 
two rows each time it crosses the field, one man can cultivate about 
15 acres a day. In many sections it is often difficult to obtain labor- 
ers when they are needed. With one of these two-row cultivators one 
man can practically do the work of two with single-row culti- 
vators. The quality of the work may ?uflfer some, however. Nor 
withstanding this, their use is likely to increase, especially in the com 
paratively level sections that are free from stumps and rocks. Most 
forms of these two-row cultivators are mounted on two wheels like 
two-horse, single-row cultivators. Very stumpy land or tall corn may 
necessitate the use of a one-horse cultivator. 

The kind of shovel that is best to equip either single or double 
cultivators with must be determined by the character of the soils, si/.c of 
of the corn, and size and nature of the gnnvth of the weeds to t)c determines 
destroyed. Without exception, any shovel found to do good work th«t m«y 
on a one-horse cultivator can be attached to a double or two-row 
cultivator. For light, sandy land, sweeps are in favor. They are of 
various width, from six to 30 inches. The sweeps scrape along the 

' soil at a depth of two inches, cutting off the weeds and allowing the 
surface soil to pass over them and fall level and flat behind the culli 
vator. The same result is accomplished with the double cultivator 
in New England where it is known as a horse-hoe or hoeing machine. 
This implement was originally made for tobacco cultivation, the long, 

I horizontal blades or shears which extend tt)war(l the row from the 
uprights which fasten to the bean, serve well to reach under the 
tobacco plant and cut weeds and loosen the soil without breaking 
the leaves. 

In general the four-shovel cultivator goes too deep iDr cultivating poui 
r^n after the first time over. This is especially true if the wecils Juiuv«tor 
wire destroyed with the first cultivation. The four shovel cultivator ^ijy'uilpd 
in fact plows the corn instead of cultivating it. Such trtatincnt is 
ofen necessary to destroy the weeds, after which shallow cultivation 
should be practiced. This may be done by using small shovels, four 
to six on a side, or with the surface cultivator. 

All forms of shovels should be so adjusted that the loosened soil saruc* 
will make a fine and even covering for the firmer soil beneath. Ridges be"un 
left by the shovels make a larger surface for evaporation, and allow •"**'^'' 



198 



CORN. 




m.TIVATING LISTED CORN 199 

a deeper entrance of drying atmosphere into the soil. Some surface 
cultivators bear attachments for smoothing the ground as the machine 
passes along. 

CULTIVATION OF LISTED CORN. It is an idea with many 
farmers of the districts where corn is checked entirely, that listing is a 
slack metho<l of corn culture. In the past listing has been practiced 
most generally by farmers who grow large areas. Hence the methods 
of cultivation adopted have been those which accomplished most in 
the least time. This was often carried to excess, even to the detr'- co^° "'^ 
ment of the crop. Some growers harrow the ridges before the corn 
comes up, especially if the weeds start early. Others wait until the 
corn is two or three inches high and then harrow. By both of these 
systems, clods and corn stubs (if the old row has been listed out) are 
rolled into the furrow. In the former case these obstructions hold 
the sprout beneath the surface, and in the latter bury the little plant. 
In either case the weed seeds which were thrown out on the ridg«s 
away from the corn, are now returned to the furrow before the corn 
has had time to get ahead of their growth. Rolling with a heavy roller 
has some advantages in that instead of hurling the clods into the 
furrow, it simply pushes them down, crushing a great many. The 
idea of these last two methods is to level the ridge for the horses. 




HINOLR ROW DISC CULTIVATOR WITH .m.KD AND KNIVFS 

KOR LIHTED CORN 
Thli ivpr nf rtilli valor with varyiog •tUrhmenU ia eommonlj knnwn 
•■ the "OoDeTil." 



200 



CORN. 



Cultivators 

for listed 

coru 



The "go-devil," as it is usually called in listed corn districts, has 
two heavy two-inch runners about eight inches high and 40 inches 
long which fit into the furrow. To the rear of these is a set of discs, 
two or three on each side, which may be set by a small lever placed 
near the seat. These discs throw dirt out of the furrow, or may 
simply loosen it. Two long fenders keep the corn from being cov- 
ered. Such an implement, when set correctly, does very efficient 
work. There are a great many types of listed corn cultivators. Some 
have discs, some long knives. Two-row cultivators for listed corn are 
put up after these plans also. Some of these implements may also be 
used for the second time over the corn. Otherwise, the corn is often 
harrowed in the course of three or four days. This is a very efficient 
method because the first cultivation has loosened the soil. 




(Courtesy St. Joseph Plow Co.) Fig. 98. 

TWO ROW LISTED CORN CULTIVATOR. 



In certain sections the land is so very rolling that the two-row 
riding cultivators or one-row riding cultivators are too heavy. The 
four or six-shovel walking cultivator is used, either with very long 
shields or with a wooden or sheet iron trough dragging in the furrow. 
The second time over, the trough is replaced .by smaller shields. 

With listed corn machinery, as with all other corn implements, 
manufacturers have endeavored to reach perfection. The work of 
the two-row cultivators in northern Missouri bespeaks efficiency m 
ease of operation and in area covered for a given time. 



I 



CULTIVATING LISTED CORN. 



201 



In cultivating listed corn, especially where the field was only single- 



Deep 



listed, a larger amount of dirt is moved and the shovels are set deeper cultivation 

in the ground. Deep cultivation when the corn is ready to lay by is to^^Uated"°°^ 

less detrimental to listed corn, because the root system is much further 

down than in case of planted corn. Listed corn is slow in starting in 

the spring because its seed bed is lower down and not so warm. Many 

farmers become discouraged with the field of listed corn, because it 

looks yellow and spindling. But just as soon as it has been cultivated 

once, and especially after the second cultivation, the stalks begin to 

grow rapidly. The warm, dry weather of late summer pushes listel 

corn so much faster because its roots are drawing from a lower water 

table. This supply is most needed just when the ears are forming. 



Listed corn 
suffers less 
from 
drought 




CHAPTER IX 



THE CARE OF THE CORN CROP 



HARVESTING AND STORING THE GRAIN 



Fat and 



HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR. 

A. Stage of Maturity. 

B. Time of Harvesting. 

C. Methods of Harvesting. 

D. Cost of Harvesting. 

E. Methods of Unloading. 

STORING CORN. 

A. Principles Involved. 

B. Cribs. 

C. Shrinkage of Corn. 

HARVESTING CORN IN THE EAR.— Stage of Maturity. 

protein is a generally accepted theory that in plants of the grass family the 
remain percentage of fat increases and that of protein remains constant oi 

constant ..,,.,,, r • -t^ j i." 

In percentage decreases slightly With the advancement of maturity. 1 ests made at 
the Iowa State College show that the kernels increased in the per- 
centage of fat from 2.18 per cent on September 14th to 4.93 per cent 
on November 2d. *The protein content decreased from 10.75 to 10.4Q 
per cent between the same dates. Mature corn has a much larger 
percentage of carbohydrates stored in the kernel. The drying of the 
lower leaves and the turning of the husks from green to whitish ii 
color, indfcate the ripening of the ears. But the pith inside of th 
Per cent of Stalk holds its moisture a long time and keeps feeding the kernels- 

carbohydrates j|-,p kernels should be of a horny textuie and husk well dried befor 
Increases -' 

being gathered. 

*Bachelor's Thesis, Morris and Cohagen, 1907 



i 



TIME AND METHOD OF HARVESTING. 



203 



Time of Harvesting, The season has much to do in pro- 
longing the ripening period. A damp, cold autumn keeps the foliage 
green and sappy. Early drought hastens the curing of the stalk and 
leaves, and matures the ears. The effect of frosts is marked when 
the freezing is severe. Early varieties which are intended for immed- 
iate feeding may be husked before October ist in most sections of 
the corn belt. 

Immature, sappy corn will mold because of the large amount of 
moisture present. Corn husked in damp weather requires more aera- 
tion than when the atmosphere is dry and windy. To insure safe 
storage, October 20th to 25th is early enough. 




Fig. 99. 

THE COMMON METHOD OF HUSKING CORN FROM THE FIELD. 

One man with team and wagon gathers two rows each trip through the field. 



Oct. 



25 

enough 



early 



Method of Harvesting. Husking by hand is the chief means of 
gathering the bulk of the corn crop. One man, with wagon and team, 
will average 70 bushels per day in corn yielding 50 bushels per acre. 
Larger averages are made by many farmers in high-yielding field?. 
When no snow is on the ground and the husker is careful, very few 
ears are left in the field. Corn that has blown down badly can be 
gathered only by this method. 

From time to time different patented machines have been manu- 
factured for the purpose of harvesting corn in the ear. Most of them 
have proved very impracticable and wasteful. Where corn stands 
up well and the rows are of sufiicient length to justify the use, the 
present cornhusker is a decided success. Besides the man to operate 



70 liusbels 
per day 
b] hand 



Not as 
much 
waste hy 
machinery 
as formerly 
thought 



204 



CORN. 



the machine and to drive the horces, (from four to six in number) 
two men and teams are required to haul the corn to the crib. There 
are some ears left, but where cattle and hogs are turned into the 
field during the winter and spring, little waste occurs. 




Fig. 100. 

CORN PICKER AND HDSKER. 
Used in larger fields, and is drawn by six horses. 



Cost of Harvesting. Not many years ago, corn growers of the 
2 to 5 cents central states hired men to husk their corn at two cents per bushel. 
Since then, the price has steadily raised until during the fall of 1906 
four cents was the prevailing price in a few localities, some even pay- 
ing five cents. 

Owners of corn-gathering machinery report the cost per bushel 

Very little between three to five cents. This depends upon the yield of the 

machfne^ corn per acre as only from eight to ten acres can be picked daily. 

The use of a picker is not so much of a money saver as a time saver. 

Men can be hired to run a wagon by the side of the loader, who would 

be of little use as buskers themselves. 

Methods of Unloading. The scoop shovel delivers most of the 
corn crop into cribs. To aid the shoveler, cribs are built with a 
series of doors in order that all of the corn need not be lifted so 
high. In some cases, where a double crib is used, an elevated drive- 
way does away with considerable hard manual labor. 

Where a corn grower has any considerable acreage to gather and 
store, the automatic unloaders are now almost indispensable. The 



STORING CORN. 



205 



power used is a gasoline engine, or more commonly the team off the 
husking wagon. After the wagon end gate is removed and the corn 
begins to fall into the hopper behind, the front end of the wagon are now 
gradually rises at the same tirrie the corn is being elevated into the largely 
crib. A single crib may be filled from the side by moving several 
times. An overhead carrier is usually hung in the gable of a double 
crib, and chutes are arranged at intervals to transfer the corn to the 
cribs on each side. The time required depends upon the size of the 
load, the power at hand, and the pitch of the carrier. One farmer 
near Mason City, Iowa says that 40 bushels can be unloaded in four 
to five minutes. Another at Massena says he has unloaded 25 bush- 



tef^ii 


iiiX 


fk 


. .^v^ y \ " *■'.•: .; :>.r c 


,M- .'-"^^i 






^<^ 

<: 



(Courtesy Iowa State College) 



Fig. 101. 

CORN PICKER AT WORK. 

Used in large fields where little turning is necessary. 



els in three minutes. The fact that the husker does not have to shovel 3 to ic 

, . . ,-111 1 T- minutes 

when arriving at the crib allows time to gather more corn. 1 en required 

bushels extra on an average can be so picked. One farmer reports 

unloading a 40 bushel load in seven minutes. , 

STORING CORN. — Principles Involved. The principles of stor- 
ing corn are : 

(i) The admittance of as much air from the outside to come 
in contact with the corn as possible. 

(2) The escape of the heated air in the crib rapidly and 
without interruption. 

(3) The exclusion of moisture from the crib. 



206 



CORN. 



Stave 



Cribs. In the western states, where lumber is high in price and 
fenorng the elevators not within immediate reach, much corn is piled on the 
cribs ground. As soon as the husking season is over, it is shelled and 
hauled to the elevators. Stave fencing has become so cheap and yet 
serviceable, that round cribs have been made from it which hold from 
500 to 1,000 bushels. Two heavy posts are usually set in the ground 
about four feet apart. The fencing is then fastened to one post ex- 
tended in a convenient circle, with a diameter of 12 to 20 feet and 
then securely stapled to the other post. A short piece as a sort of 
gate is left between the posts. This is easily opened at the time of 
shelling. The frozen ground, if cleared off well before the corn is 
thrown in, makes a comparatively smooth surface upon which to 
shovel. 



C 



V 






L^ 




Fig. 103. 
HORIZONTAL AND SLANTING BOARDS ON CORN CRIB. 



Rail crib 



Better 

cribs 

to-day 



In the east central states in the timbered sections, the familiar 
rail crib is no longer so often seen. The profits accruing from large 
fields all over the corn belt both east and west, have enabled the corn 
grower to build substantial structures in which to store his product. 
Then, too, as the farmer feeds his own crop very largely, he must be 
in position to keep it in good condition. Even the renter has capital 
enough to be able to hold back for a rising market. 

Well ventilated frame structures built on foundations of solid 
masonry and painted to prevent rotting have proved them^selves to 
be of value. Different methods have been adopted to facilitate the 
circulation of air through the newly husked corn. Shafts at intervals 
through the center of the crib accomplish the required result. Tight 
boarding on the sides will never do. But for the best preservation 
of the corn, the floor should be far enough from the ground to allow 
free circulation of air. If the siding be put on vertically, or at an 



\ 



SHRINKAGE OF CORN. 207 

angle, there is less rotting of the studding and the rain water is 
carried off directly instead of being allowed to run down inside on 
the corn. 

Cement Floor for Corn Cribs. *"I found from experience that 
grain, cither shelled or in the ear, did not keep well on this cement 
floor because of the changing temperature of earth and cement, thus 
causing the vapor to condense on the surface of the cement. To 
avoid this trouble, I had to put down a wood floor over the cemeni, 
since which time my grain has been keeping perfectly. I placed on 
the cement joists of 2x4 stuff, wide side down, sixteen inches apart. 
On these was laid a hard pine floor, thus leaving a two-inch space be- 
tween the cement and wood floor. Rats and mice have never at- 
tempted to harbor beneath these cribs, and I never have any fear, 
however great the weight, that the floor will spring and cause a leak. 
I would have no other kind of floor for crib or granary." 

SHRINKAGE OF CORN. Because of the varying amount of 
moisture contained in corn at storing time, definite figures of the per- 
cent of shrinkage are not always reliable. The state of maturity and the 
condition of the weather at the time of gathering determine to a large 
extent, the water content. 

Tests at Illinois. ** In tests at the Illinois Station with corn stored 
from November 11, 1905 to November 3, 1906, the total shrinkage was J"*^ 
12.9 per cent. Variations of from 9.0 to 20.7 per cent were found in 
trials for two years. 

Tests at the Iowa Station. ***According to tests at the Iowa State 
College, kernels of corn harvested September 14th, contained 41.78 
per cent of water, while those gathered November 2d showed 17.83 
per cent of moisture. These figures show the large amount of wate; 
stored in a crib of newly husked corn. In another test, corn gathered 
September 20, 1904, shrank 53.8 per cent by February i, 1905, while 
ears gathered November 7th lost but 21.4 per cent in weight at the 
same time. 

A small crib holding about one hundred bushels was built on a 
truck wagon. This was filled with ear corn during the husking sea- 
son and careful weights taken at the dates indicated. The following 
table shows the results obtained : 

*Neinaha County, Nebraska, I. W. P.Wallaces' Fanner, November 11, 1904 
♦♦Bulletin No. 50, Illinois. 
** '^Thesis Cohagan and Morris, 1907. (Represents only laboratory tests) 



Illinois 



208 



CORN. 



♦SHRINKAGE OF CORN BY YEARS AND MONTHS GIVEN IN 

PERCENTAGE. 

Iowa Experiment Station. 



Month 


1 1898 
1 1899 


1899 
1900 


1900 
1901 


1902 
I90S 


1903 
1904 


1904 
1905 


1905 
1906 


1906 
1907 


Av. 


Mo. ■ 
Rate 


November 

December 

January 

February 

March 


8.1 
8.9 
9.0 

10.1 
10.3 
14.6 
15.0 
16.0 
17.7 
18.0 
19.9 
19.7 


4.0 

2.6 
2.3 
2.7 
4.4 
6.6 
7.4 
8.0 
7.4 
7.1 
7.6 
7.9 


2.6 
3.6 
4.6 

5.9 
6.8 
8.6 
11.4 
12.4 
15.9 
15.0 
14.0 
13.6 


1.8 

3.6 

5.7 

6.0 

9.2 

15.3 

15.1 

21.4 

22.5 

22.6 

24.8 

24.9 


8.2 
10.9 
11.7 
12.6 
14.9 
19.3 
24.3 
26.0 
26.7 
29.5 
30.5 
30.0 


8.3 
9.5 
10.2 
10.5 
15.3 
15.4 
19.0 
19.8 
20.2 
21.2 
20.6 
20.8 


7.2 

9.2 
9.0 
11.6 
12.0 
15.1 
17.5 
19.1 
19.5 
18.7 
19.3 
19.3 


1.4 

3.1 
4.5 
7.1 
8.2 
7.6 
8.2 
8.6 
8.9 
9.5 


5.2 

6.9 

7.5 

7.8 

9.7 

12.8 

14.7 

16.3 

17.3 

17.8 

18.2 

18.2 


5.2 

1.7 

.6 

.3 

1.9 


April 


3.1 


May 


1.9 


June 


1.6 


July 


1.0 


August 


.5 


September 

October 


.4 
.0 







As shown by above, with the exception of November, the most 
Average rapid shrinkage is during the months of April and May. 

of 8^ ears ^9*^ ^^^'^ ^^^ remembered as the year of the greatest corn crop 

of teste ever grown in Iowa. The yield was heavy and the corn was well 
matured before freezing weather. The corn contained very little 
moisture, as shown by the test. 




Pig. 104. 

PORTABLE GRAIN ELEVATOR. 

Easily moved from one crib to another. 



'Shrinkage begins the last of October each year and porcnutage taken each month. 
J901-0i corn of the previous year used but noi recorded. 



In 



TESTS IN OTHER STATES. 209 

The crops of 1899 and 1906 will be noted as very well matured. 
The crop of 1903 will always be remembered as the "year of the solt 
corn." 

Tests in Other States. *"Three joint owners of a tract compri.s 
ing 6,000 acres of land, decided to make a careful test and determine 
exactly how much corn does actually shrink in weight when husked 
and cribbed under such conditions as are usually found on the ordi- 
nary farm. To this end, they erected, in the center of the tract men- 
tioned, a double crib, 26 feet wide by 250 feet long and 10 fc^ high 
at the eaves, with a driveway 8 feet wide through the center, and a 
and a good, tight roof over all. 

Near one end of this crib a small office was built and a set of 
standard scales put in. Husking began October 22d and ended De- ^ Kansas 
cember 17th. Every day while it was going on, every pound of corn ^°' 
that went into the crib was weighed and recorded. The quantity pat 
in footed exactly 16,155 bushels of 70 pounds each. From November 
to March, the price offered for corn by local dealers was 38 cents p< 1 
bushel of 70 pounds. June ist, the price went up to 52 cents and the 
corn was sold, to be delivered at the elevator, three and one-half miles 
distant, early in July. When the time for delivery arrived, the corn 
was weighed as it came out of the crib, and it was again weighed at 
the elevator, the total weight at the two places varying but a feu- 
pounds. The corn weighed 14,896 bushels and 40 pounds when taken 
out, showing a total shrinkage of 1,259 bushels or a small fraction 
less than 7 3-4 per cent. 

It will be seen that if these men had sold the corn immediately 
after husking, it would have netted them $6,138.90. By holding it 
until it was sufficiently cured to be handled safely in great bulk, and 
the lakes and other waterways were open to traffic, they realized 
$7,746.12 or $1,606.22 more than if they had allowed themselves to 
be frightened by the great "shrinkage bugaboo." 

In 1893, a Farmers' Club in Pennsylvania adopted a resolution ask- 
ing the members to make a test and find out by actual weight how 
much corn would shrink or lose weight from husking time until the J®"' *^ 
next June ist. In accordance with that resolution, ten farmers re- syivania 
ported the shrinkage from November ist to February ist as 8 2-3 per 
cent; the shrinkage from February ist to June ist as 2 2-3 per cent, 
or from husking time to June ist next, 162-3 per cent. The follow 
ing year a similar test showed a shrinkage of 16.5 per cent. 

"F. D. Ooburn, Report Kansas State Boardof Agriculture, 1896 



210 CORN. 

Shrinkage of Old Corn. Tests at Illinois showed but .9 per cent 

shrinkage in the second year of storage of ear corn. 

Ehrinkage WJH it pay to hold corn for May prices in view ot shrinkage? 

second Figuring on the basis of the average price No. 2 (cash) corn at Chi- 

^^" cago for a period of years from 1873 to 1906 inclusive, the following 

results are brought out : 

The highest average price in May for this period was 47.5 cents; 
the lowest average 40.6 cents, or average of averages, 44.05 cents. 
For December for the same period the figures are 46.2 cents highest, 
40.4 cents lowest, 43.4 cents average. In December a bushel of 70 
pounds would be worth, on this basis, 43.4 cents. By May, according 
to the figures of the Iowa Station for 1904, which are representative, 
that bushel would have shrunken 18.2 per cent, or 12.74 pounds, leav- 
ing to be sold at that time 57.26 pounds. The May price is 44.05 cents 
])er bushel or .63 cents per pound. .63 cents per pound for 57.26 
])()unds would be 36.07 cents for the bushel, which could have been 
sold in December for 43.4 cents. This would be a net loss of 7.33 cents 
on the bushel. Figuring the same shrinkage on corn in December, 
80 pounds per bushel, a loss of 2.14 cents per bushel would result. 

By taking a shorter, more recent period, it is found that the margin 
is not very much in favor of May corn, not enough, in fact, to counter- 
balance the shrinkage. The average price in December between 1901 
and 1907 inclusive, was 50.3 cents per bushel at Chicago, that of May 
for the same period was 51.9 cents. 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

The Bachelor Thesis of Morris and Cohagan (1907) was drawn 
upon, it being very applicable. 

In securing facts regarding the methods of unloading, the corn 
growers of Iowa have been very free to furnish information. 

'^^he shrinkage experiments at the different Experiment Station^ 
have been freely quoted. 

The Report of Kansas State Board of Agriculture for 1896 has 
furnished very practical data. 

COLLATERAL READING 

Corn Ilar\esting Machinery, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 173. 



COLLATERAL READING. 



211 



The Shrinkage of Ear Corn in Cribs, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 113. 
Moisture in Corn, 

Iowa (Press). 
Shrinkage of Corn, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 210. 
Shrinkage of Corn, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 317. 

Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 



CHAPTER X 



THE COST OF GROWING CORN 



Very few 

accurate 

figures 

are 

available 

on cost of 

production 



In the past, corn growers as a class have not kept accurate figures 
regarding the cost of production. Profits have accrued because of the 
broad margin between the cost of production and the selling price. 
The fertility of the soil, the cheapness of labor, and the access to 
larger areas, were factors which tended toward profits, no matter how 
small the crop. The reverse of these conditions has driven men to 
thinking and figuring. No such large areas are now available for de- 
spoilation in extensive slipshod methods. Labor demands almost ex- 
cessive payment for the number of hours actually employed. The 
virgin soil no longer yields abundantly year after year without re- 
turn of manure and rotation of crops. 

The solution of the problem is increased yield and economy of 
production. Conservation of the soil fertility by feeding the crops on 
the farm, thus returning nearly all of the elements of plant food in 
an available form, better cultural methods, eradication of weeds, the 
use of labor-saving machinery and the breeding of the best corn adapt- 
ed to the locality, will accomplish these results. Some estimates 
are here given regarding the cost of producing corn in diflferent parts 
of the corn belt. 



AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST AND ORANGE JUDD 

FARMER ESTIMATES 

The following discussion is taken from the compilation by Myrick, 
in the "Book of Corn." It is here reprinted because of the thorough- 
ness and comprehensiveness of the investigation. Each point develop- 
ed is backed up by facts and figures. 

In 1897 these journals published a series of articles upon the cost 

Result f ^^ growing corn, based upon data furnished by growers who had kept 

, day to day detailed rccords of all items of cost connected with their crop in 1896. 

Up to that time no systematic and scientific effort to determine on 

any large scale the cost of production of any staple farm crop had 



WHAT IS COST? 213 

ever been made, and most erroneous e:timates of this cost were cur- 
rently acce]jted. The method adopted to secure the necessary data 
was simple and effective. A large number of corn growers were in- 
duced to keep an actual day-to-day record, upon a specially prepared 
blank, showing the exact amount of labor and other expense bestowed 
upon a certain definite area, and when the season was over these 
records were consolidated and the results averaged. 

This investigation covered but eight states, and it was determined 

1 ■ ^- ^- 11 1 11-11 . InvestigaHon 

to carry on a second mvestigation which should include systematic of 
results typical of the conditions under which corn is grown in all states 
sections of the country. The original plan of securing actual day- 
to-day records was adhered to and the circulars so arranged as to 
secure the exact record of all expenses attached to the growing of 
the crop, from fertilization and preparation of the soil through the 
whole season's work, in the order in which it was performed, up to 
the cribbing of the crop. These circulars were in the hands of the 
growers before the first plow entered the ground, and continued in 
their possession until the crop was gathered. 

In tabulating these individual records only those absolutely com- 
plete and perfect were used, these covering 4,051 acres, located in 156 
counties of 21 states. In this area was included corn grown under 
various methods practiced in ditTerent parts of the country, so that 
the averages presented do not represent the cost under any particu- 
lar method, but an average of the various methods. 

What is the Cost? In analvzing the data secured bv this investi- what is 

1 .< f ■ .^ ,. . ... ' , . .,- cost? 

gation, the term cost of production is used in its popular signm 
cance, as reprerenting the actual outlay or the amount of capital act- 
ually used up and which must be replaced before any profit upon the 
fixed or permanently invested capital can be secured. In the tabula- 
tions to be presented, this covers taxation, labor and labor mainte- 
nance, fertilizing material, seed, team maintenance, and depreciation 
of machinery and horses. Land, horses, and machinery are treated as 
permanent capital, and an allowance of interest on this permanent in- 
vestment is not considered as part of the cost of production, but the 
net profits on the crop after all the circulating capital which has been 
used up has been replaced, is taken as the profit of production, and 
therefore is the interest returned on the permanent investment. 

Labor and Wages. The great bulk of the corn crop is produced 
by the labor of the owner of the crop. Some hiring is done in stress 
of work, but this usually supplements the lal)or of the owner. In 



214 



CORN. 



figuring labor cost, the rate of wages paid where hiring is done by 
the day is used, the assumption being that the owner is entitled to 
* wages charge his labor at the highest local market price. By common custom 
in every community, there is a wage rate for labor with board fur- 
nished and another where the laborer boards himself. The difference 
between these two rates represents the value or cost of maintenance 
as determined by experience and custom. In this investigation, cost 
of wages and cost of maintenance of labor are figured together by 
making the wage basis the rate of wages per day without board. 
Having the number of day's labor given to each operation pursued in 
the growing of the corn crop and the average rate of wages per day 
v'ithout board, the cost of labor and labor maintenance becomes a 
simple matter. The average wages per day without board ranged 
from 60 cents in Virginia to $1.50 in Maine, averaging for the 21 
states $1.10. 

Teams and Maintenance. The meaning of team is not the same 
in all districts or in all operations. It may be two, three, or more 
horses. To bring the various customs to a common basis, the num- 

Meaning ° 

of team her of horses used in any operation is reduced to a common standard 
of teams of two horses. As an illustration, if four horses were used 
to plow in a given crop, it enters into the calculation as two teams. 
The horse power used in making the crop may be regarded from ca'O 
standpoints. Wage allowance may be made for their service- on the 
basis of the rate usually paid where horses are hired. The second way 
of considering the horse power is regarding the necessary coi iplement 
of horses on the farm as part of the permanently invested capital. 
Beyond question this is the proper method. On this basis annual 
cost of team maintenance and an allowance for depreciation is the 
proper charge against the crop. This charge may be made in two 
ways. The first is to ascertain the average cost per day of team 
maintenance, charging the corn crop with maintenance only for those 
dayo in which the team is actually engaged in the work of producing 
the crop. This plan would be followed upon the assumption that the 
horses of the farm are constantly engaged in some form of farm work, 
and that the cost of their keep and care each day should be charged 
to the work then engaged in. The objection is that horses are not 
employed equally day by day and their maintenance in their days of 
idleness must be charged to some portion of farm work. 

The other plan of charging for horse power, which is considered 
the most equitable, is to divide the aniuial cost of maintenance by the 



POWER, TAXES. RENT, IMPLEMENTS. 215 

total acres of cultivated land in the farm. The whole cultivated area 
shares in their work, and should share in the cost of keeping them. 
In the same way, their annual depreciation should be shared by the 
farm as a whole. 

Cost of 

The data submitted, showing monthly feeding of hay, grain and teams 
other feed, made the average cost per month of maintenance a team 
of two horses $8.21. with a range from $12.91 in Massachusetts to 
$5.98 in Nebraska. 

Horse Power and Machinery. The horse on the farm is what 
steam is to the manufacturer — power. Horses are therefore properly 
part of the permanent capital of the farm. Treated in this way, the ^^uie of 
charge for horse power in crop production is the annual cost of their each acre 
maintenance and the annual depreciation of their value. The farms 
included in the schedule of this investigation aggregated 26,522 acres, 
the number of horses required in conducting the farming operations 
was 781, their total value being $39,525, an average of $50.60 per head. 
The value per farm acre of the horses necessary to farming opera- 
tions was $1.49. The monthly cost of team maintenance, as shown 
above, was $8.21, making the annual cost of maintenance or the nec- 
essary complement of horses for the farm work $38,472. or a cost per 
farm acre of $1.45. 

Taxation, The rate of taxation per acre of the farm is ascertained 
by securing the total taxation on the land, buildings, stock and im- 
plements, the fixed capital and apportioning the taxes equitably be 
tween this total farm value and the value of the corn land alone. The 
average rate of taxation is 28.3 cents per acre, ranging from 3 cents 
per acre in \'irginia to 79 cents in Massachusetts. This seems a wide 
range, but when the value per acre of the land is considered the tax- 
ation is more equitable, being .6 of one per cent of the value in Vir- 
ginia and 1.3 per cent in ^lassachusetts. 

Rent, Implements and Interest. The average cash rental per acre 
of land similar to that reported upon was returned at $3.05, ranging 
from $1.00 in Virginia to $5.25 in Pennsylvania. The average value 
per acre of the corn land was returned at $47.71, and on this valuation 
the cash rents equal 6.4 per cent. The average rate of interest at whi'.h 
loans could be secured was reported at 7.1 per cent, ranging from 5 
per cent in New England to 10 per cent in Texas. 

The quality and effectiveness of farm implements varies greatly JifT^^s^^d 
and the amount of fixed capital invested in such machinery varies Imp^t^nts 
equally. From the data submitted, it appears that the average invest- 



^H mcMit rc(|uirc(l to furnish inii)lcniciits for a 40 acre corn field was 

^K $83.59, *^^ $2.09 per acre, ranj^insi^ from 87 cents per acre in Virginia 

^V to $2.62 in Iowa. The averau^e effective Hfe of such implements was 

^H a fraction over ten years, thus fixing the allowance for depreciation 

^H of implements at 20.9 cents per acre. This allowance includes re- 

^H pairs necessary during the life of the implements. 

^H Labor and Its Statistical Treatment, The amount and character 

^K of labor required to make a corn crop necessarily varies according to 

^H the cultural methods followed. In the 4,051 acres included in this 

^H, investigation various cultural methods were used. As an average must 

^R include all methods, the total amount of labor required to perform -i 

^H certain operation is distributed over the total area, although actually 

^H the labor was perfonned on only a part of the acreage. For example, 

^V it w^as necessary to remove stalks on only 1,672 acres, but the labor 

^B cost of the different operations is grouped into certain fundamental 

^B divisions of culture according to the result aimed at by the operation 

^H in question. The term "labor cost" as used in this analysis includes 

^H wages and labor maintenance, but does not include cost of team maiu- 

^B tenance, that being included later in the tabulation as a separate item. 

^H Removing Stalks, When corn is grown two years in succession, 

^H the first work of preparation is the removal of old stalks. Cutting up 

^B and carrying off was practiced on 784 acres, requiring 91 1-2 days of 

^B labor and 76 days of team service. The actual accomplishment was 

^B 8.6 acres per day of labor. Breaking, raking and burning was prac- 

^B ticed on 889 acres, requiring 92 days of labor and 79 3-4 days of team 

^B service, the average accomplishment being 9.7 acres per day's labor. 

Labor Plowing. Of the 4,051 acres, 3,491 were plowed, the remaining 

required 5(30 acres being listed in. To plow 725 acres in the fall required 293 

riowing days of labor witli 382 days of team service, or an accomplishment of 2.47 
acres per day's labor. The discrepancy between days of labor and 
days of team service is of course due to the fact that more than two 
horses were frequently used to the plow, and in all such cases team 
work is stated in the equivalent of two horses. The spring plowing of 
2,766 acres required 1,154 3-4 days of labor and 1,479 days of team 
service, an accomplishment of 2.4 acres per day's labor. 

Difference Harrowing. The amount of work done in the way of harrowing, 

methods" discing, rolling, dragging and otherwise preparing the seedbed varies 

01 putting greatly in local practice. Instances appear in the schedule where the 

corn field was worked seven times, while in other cases only one working 



FERTILIZING. 



217 



Listing 
a cheaper 
method 



was given. Of the 4,051 acres, harrowing or other similar prepara- 
tion was practiced on 3,280. As only 560 acres were listed this leaves 
211 acres on which planting followed plowing with no eflfort to pre- 
pare the seedbed. It required 496 3-4 days of labor and 668 1-4 days 
of team service to accomplish the harrowing, 01 an average of 6.6 
acres per day's labor. 

Listing. This method of planting is little practiced except in Kan- 
sas and Nebraska. Under the proper soil and climatic conditions it is 
desirable, and so far as the amount of labor required is concerned it 
is far cheaper than the usual practice. In this investigation 560 acres 
were listed, requiring 92 1-2 days of labor and 119 1-4 days of team 
service, the accomplishment per day's labor being 6.1 acres. 

Fertilizing. The percentage of the total corn acreage which in 
any year is fertilized by the direct application of fertilizing material 
is so small as to hardly merit consideration. Where this is done at 
all it is usually thus treated once in a series of years, so that the full 
cost of such treatment cannot properly be charged to a single crop 
following. The usual method of maintaining fertility is by devoting Maintaining 
the land occasionally to some renovating crop, like clover, and when ^^"^^^^^^ 
this is done it is obvious that some allowance must be made for the 
less valuable product of the land in that vear. but what that allow- 
ance should be cannot be determined with accuracy. 

In this investigfation allowance has been made only for fertility di- 
rectly applied, and in such cases the full cost has been charged to 
the crop in question. This course undoubtedly makes the charp'p il 
lowed for fertilizing higher than it actually averages, but no other 
course seems open without the introduction of personal estimate into 
a calculation which is intended to be an actual record. In the sched- 
ules fertilizing was reported on some parts of 1,639 acres, requiring 
635 1-4 days of labor and 483 1-4 days of team service. There were 
used 9,100 pounds of commercial fertilizer, costing $86.85, and 5,977 
loads of home-made material valued at $2,313.95. 

Planting. Planting methods included the w^hole range from hand 
dropping and hoe covering to the use of hand planters, and up through y.gg ^cres 
machines of varying efficiency to the best modern horse planters. As pf^ttng'* 
a result the efficiency of a day's labor varies widely, from .71 of an 
acre in New Hampshire to 12.44 acres in Nebraska. The acreage 
regularly planted was 3,491 acres, requiring 442 1-4 days of labor 
and 375 3-4 days of team service — an average accomplishment of 7.89 
acres per day's labor. 



218 



CORN. 



Cultivation, The cost of cultivation differs more than any other 
operations, owing to the differences in implements used, and to differ 
ent degrees of care and labor given the crop. The whole area, 4,051 
acres, was cultivated twice ; 3,991 acres were cultivated three times ; 
2,515 acres received a fourth cultivation, while 442 acres were giver, 
additional cultivation. To perform the total amount of cultivation 
given to the crop, for the record required 2,296 1-2 days of labor and 
2,297 1-2 days of team service. The average performance per day's 
\-ibor was 1.76 acres; this, of course, representing the total cultivation 
given to this breadth during the whole season. A day's labor sufffced 
TO cultivate about 6.6 acres. 

Gathering and Cribbing. Two methods are followed ; first, cutting 
up and shocking, then husking from the shock ; second, husking from 
the standing stalk, the stalks left standing in the field to be pastured 
down. In this investigation 2,976 acres were husked standing, 
requiring 2,438 days of labor and 2,264 days of team service, the ac- 
complishment being 1.22 acres per day's labor, this including cribbing 
as vvi.H as husking. Of the crop cut up, 659 acres were done by hand, 
requiring 595 3-4 days of labor, or i.ii acres per day. Husking from 
the shock was practiced on 651 acres, excluding 212 acres by con- 
tract, requiring 1,223 3-4 days of labor and 382 1-2 days of team ser- 
vice, or an accomplishment in husking and cribbing of .53 acres per 
day's labor. 

Fodder. The value of fodder as a by-product must be taken from 
the gross cost of growing the corn crop. Where the crop is cut and 
shocked, the value of the fodder is an important item, but where the 
crop is husked standing the value of the stalks for pasturage is slighr. 
Fodder was shocked on 945 acres, and this product was returned as 
worth $2,174.70 in the field, or an average value per acre of $2.30 
where the fodder is cut. On the 3,106 acres, where the crop was 
husked standing, the selling value of the pasturage privilege was 
estimated by the owners at $990.60, or an average of 32 cents per 
acre. The aggregate valuation of fodder production by both methods 
was $3,165.30, or 'an average per acre of 78.1 cents. 

Production, The total production of corn was 158,815 bushels, 
or 39.2 bushels per acre. 

With the preceding analyses of the methods followed in this in- 
vestigation, the following table is presented as a fair showing of the 
cost of producing the corn crop on the 4,051 acres included in these 
schedules. 



COST WITH INTEREST. 



219 



ORANGE JUDD FARMER CONCLUSION AS TO THE COST OF GROWING 

CORN. 



Acres so 
Treated 



Total 
Cost 



Cutting Stalks 

Breaking stalks 

Plowing 

Harrowing 

Listing 

Fertilization 

Planting 

Replanting 

Seed 

Cultivation 

Husked standing 

Cut by hand 

Cut by machine 

Husking from shock 

Taxation 

Team maintenance 

Depreciation of machinery 
Depreciation of horses.... 



784 

889 

3,491 

3,280 

560 

1,639 

3,491 

1,086 

4,051 

4,051 

3,106 

730 

215 

867 

4,051 



f 108.60 

110.13 

1,723.48 

583.86 

110.46 

3,275.89 

519.84 

108.69 

332.35 

2,752.44 

3,120.76 

725.45 

95.55 

1,616.95 

1,147.78 



Actual Cost 
per Acre 



$ .139 
.124 
.494 
.178 
.197 

1.999 
.149 
.100 
.082 
.67t. 

1.005 
.994 
.444 

1.865 
.283 



.054 
.425 
.144 
.027 
.809 



.082 
.679 



.283 

1.450 

.209 

.149 



Total annual investment 
Less value of fodder . . . . 



,$5,838 
. .781 



Actual cost per acre $5,057 

Cost per bushel (39.2 bu. per acre) 129 

Cost with Allowance for Interest on Investment. It has been 
previously pointed out that in determining cost of production no 
allowance is made for interest on capital permanently invested. The 
difference between the annual investment and the value of the crop 
produced represents the profit of production or the percentage of 
gain on the permanent investment. For the benefit, however, of 
those who desire to include interest or rent, the following table is 
presented, showing the proper allowance for interest on capital in- 
vested, at the rate of six per cent : 

COST OF PRODUCTION WITH INTEREST INCLUDED. 

Annual investment (details above) $5,057 

Interest on machinery investment 125 

Interest on value of horses 089 

Interest on annual investment j. . . .• 303 

Interest on value of land ^. ..,,....,... . 2.862 



Total $8,436 

Per bushel 215 

Conclusion. The tabulations which have preceded have included 
every item of cost of production except an allowance for annual re- 
pairs of buildings, fences and farm roads, insurance and superintend- 
ence. The allowance for these items must necessarily be a matter of 12.9 wnts 
opinion only. Leaving them out, the data presented show that the one bushel 
cost of producing a bushel of corn of the crop under record may be 
fairly placed at 12.9 cents. 



220 CORN. 

OTHER ESTIMATES 

In Wisconsin. The Commissioner of Statistics for Wisconsin 
presents the following very valuable data gathered from a great num- 
ber of representative farmers of the state : 

Plowing $ .535 

Fertilizing 69 

Harrowing, etc 23 

Planting 143 

Seed 08 

Cultivation 677 

Cutting 93 

Husking 1.34 

Shelling 55 

Marketing 56 

Taxation 256 

Team maintenance 867 

Depreciation of machinery 429 

Depreciation of horses 125 

Other expenses 50 

Total $7-912 

Less fodder value 3.00 

Total cost per acre $4,912 

Cost per bushel (42 bushels per acre) $ .117 

Adding the allowance for interest on permanent investment, the 
statement becomes : 

Per Acre. 

Annual investment (details above) $4,912 

Interest on machinery investment 257 

Interest on value of horses 075 

Interest on annual investment 475 

Interest on value of land 2.64 

Total $8,359 

Per Bushel 199 

In Kansas. Mr. J. W. Robinson, of El Dorado, Kansas, presents 
the following details of the cost of his corn crops and the prices at 
which he has the raising of 1,500 acres arranged for in the season of 
1896, and 1,200 acres more he will raise in the ordinary way with bis 
own teams. 



COMPA?vATIVE CObT. 221 

CUSr OF RAISING CORN HY CHECK-ROWING. 

Per Acre. 

Plowing 11.00 

Twice harrowing 20 

Planting 25 

Four cultivations 1.20 

Cutting weeds 10 

Land rent 3.00 

Husking or shocliing 40 bu. at 3 cents 1.20 

Total $6.95 

At 40 bushels per acre, cost per bushel, 17% cents. 



COST OF RAISING CORN BY LISTING. 

Per Acre. 

Listing $ .30 

Twice harrowing 20 

Four cultivations 1.20 

Cutting weeds 10 

Husking or shocking 40 bushels 1.20 

Land rent 3.00 

Total $6 00 

At 40 bushels per acre, cost per bushel, 15 cents. 

15 cents 
From estimates of actual corn growers in every county in Kansas, p^^ndng 
the highest cost was $8.63 per acre and the lowest $4.10 per acre. ^^^^' 

At Illinois. The Illinois Experiment Station* found the cost of 
producing a bushel of corn in that state in 1896 to be 16.1 cents. This 
is omitting rent of the land. The data was based upon estimates 
made by 316 farmers over the state. The lack of reliability in the re- 
port is due to the fact that the inquiry was made in 1897 concerning 
a crop which had already been disposed of. 

A very complete account of the cost of the corn crop in the State 
of Illinois is here given as taken from the reports of the Chicago 
Board of Trade : 



16.1 cents 
Illinois 



♦Bulletin No. 50. 



CORN. 



Northern. 
1905. 1906. 



DIVISIONS OF STATE. 

Central. 
1905. 1906. 



Southern. 
1905. 1906. 



Number of Counties. 


Number of Counties. 


Number of Counties. 


33 1 33 


35 1 35 


34 1 34 


Price per Bushel. 


Price per Bushel. 


Price per Bushel. 


39.0 1 37.0 


38.6 1 36.5 


37.0 I 37.3 


Highest Cost per Acre. 


Highest Cost per Acre. 


Highest Cost per Acre. 


14.10 1 12.40 


10.95 I 10.95 


10.65 1 10.65 


Lowest Cost per Acre. 


Lowest Cost per Acre. 


Lowest Cost per Acre. 


7.15 1 7.15 


6.55 1 6.55 


5.30 1 5.30 


Highest Yield Bushels. 


Highest Yield Bushels. 


Highest Yield Bushels. 


50 1 53 


65 1 60 


42 1 40 


Lowest Yield Bushels. 


Lowest Yield Bushels. 


Lowest Yield Bushels. 


30 1 27 


32 1 23 


20 1 17 



INDIVIDUAL ESTIMATES OF COST 

Sibley Estate. There are many methodical farmers who realize > 
146 the importance of knowing what it costs them to produce their crops, 
I'^'iey and such men possess data which answer the question of cost of 
growing so far as their own well managed farms are concerned. The 
Hiram Sibley estate at Sibley, Illinois, a notable example of large and 
well managed farming operations, has accurate records of cost of 
production of its crops. The manager, Mr. F. A. Warner, has sub- 
mitted the following figures showing the cost of growing a crop of 
sixty acres of corn upon the estate. 

Cost of Producing Corn on Sibley Estate, Sibley, Illinois. 

Fall plowing 45 acres at $1.00 per acre ? 45-00 

Spring plowing 15 acres at $1.00 per acre IS-OO 

Breaking stalks on 15 acres 3.00 

Discing on fall plowing, 45 acres 18.00 

Harrowing '. 10.50 

Seed corn, 9 bushels at 75 cents 6.75 

Planting 12.00 

Harrowing after planting 10.50 

Cultivating three times 78.00 

Thinning and weeding 10.00 

Husking at 2^ cents per bushel 62.25 

Shelling and hauling at 2j^ cents per bushel 62.25 

Total cost $333-25 

Taxes 20.00 

Insurance and repairs 10.00 



Grand Total. .$363.25 
Cost per bushel (41.5 bushels per acre) 146 

This cost is figured on the basis of the actual accomplishment per . 
day's labor; labor being charged at the rate of $2.50 per day for man{ 
and team and 50 cents per day for extra horses, where used. This? 
wage includes the board and keep of man and team. 



FIGURES FOR LARGE AREA. 



223 



The crop was 2,490 bushels, making the average yield per acre 
41.5 bushels, and the cost per bushel 14.6 cents. The land was valued 
at $80.00 per acre, or $4,000 for the field, and if interest be allowed on 
this investment at the rate of 6 per cent, it raises the cost of the crop 
to $651.25 and the cost per bushel to 26.2 cents. 



Standard Cattle Company. 

COST OF GROWING CORN OX STANDARD CATTLE COMPANY'S FARM, 
AMES, NEBRASKA, 1891-1900. 



1891. 


1892. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


1896. 


Acres. 
1,825 


Acres. 
1,825 


Acres. 
1,325 


Acres. 
1,792 


Acres. 

1875 


Acres. 

2.462 


Bushels. 
42,000 


Bushels. 
51,344 


Bushels. 
60,028 


Bushels. 
41,001 


Bushels. 
76,154 


Bushels. 
169,031 


Bushels Per 

Acre. 

23.0 


Bushels Per 
Acre. 

28.0 


Bushels Per 

Acre. 

45.3 


Bushels Per 
Acre. 

22.8 


Bushels Per 

Acre. 

40.6 


Bushels Per 
Acre. 
68.6 


Operating 
Expenses. 
$8,134.20 


Operating 
Expenses. 
$8,479.97 


Operating 

Expenses. 
$8,966.30 


Operating 
Expenses. 
$12,930.33 


Operating 
Expenses. 
$17,217.48 


Operating 
Expenses. 
$27,593.40 


Value of 
Stover. 


Value of 
Stover. 


Value 01 

Stover. 

$1,312.00 


Value of 

Stover. 

$7,165.00 


Value of 

Stover. 

$4,296.00 


Value of 

Stover. 

$9,320.70 






Net Cost. 
$8,134.20 


Net Cost. 
1 $8,479.97 


Net Cost. 
$7,653.80 


Net Cost. 
$5,765.33 


Net Cost. 
$12,921.48 


1 Net Cost. 
1 $18,272.70 


Cost Per 
Acre. 
$4.46 


Cost Per 
Acre. 

$4.67 


t Cost Per 
Acre. 

$5.78 


1 Cost Per 
Acre. 
$3.22 


1 Cost Per 
Acre. 
$6.89 


1 Cost Per 
1 Acre. 
1 $7.42 


Cost Per 

Bushel. 

$ .194 


Cost Per 
Bushel. 
1 $ .165 


Cost Per 
Bushel. 
1 $ .127 


, Cost Per 
Bushel, 
j $ .141 


Cost Per 
Bushel. 
1 $ .170 


1 Cost Per 
1 Bushel. 
j $ .108 



1897. 


1 1898. 


1899. 


1 1900. 


1 Total. 


Acres. 
2,717 


1 Acres. 
1 3,431 


Acres. 
1,644 


1 Acres. 
1 2,735 


1 Acres. 
1 21,631 


Bushels. 
111,932 


1 Bushels. 
1 108,090 


Bushels. 

60,837 


1 Bushels. 
j 124,995 


1 Bushels. 
1 845,412 


Bushels Per 

Acre. 

41.1 


(Bushels Per 
I Acre. 
1 31.5 


Bushels Per 

Acre. 

35.9 


j Bushels Per 
• Acre. 
1 35.0 


1 Busheis Per 
1 Acre, 
i 39.1 


Operating 
Expenses. 
$22,346.00 


Operating 
1 Expenses. 
|$28,278.49 


1 Operating 
Expenses. 
$15,275.80 


1 Operating 
1 Expenses. 
1 $25,451.00 


Operating 
Expenses. 

1 


Value of 

Stover. 
$13,446.00 


[Value of 
i Stover. 
j$10,900.00 


Value of 

Stover. 
$ 5,862.00 


1 Value of 
I Stover. 
1 $10,000.00 


1 Value of 
1 Stover. 

i 


Net Cost 
$ 8,900.01 


|Net Cost 
1 17,278.49 


Net Cost 
$ 9,413.80 


1 Net Cost 
1 $15,451.00 


1 Net Cost 
J $112,270.78 


Cost Per 
Acre. 
$3.28. 


1 Cost Per 
j Acre. 
1 $5.04. 


Cost Per 
Acre. 
$5.y3. 


i Cost Per 
; Acre. 
1 $5.65. 


1 Cost Per 
I Acre. 
1 $5.19. 


Cost Per 
Bushel. 
$ .079. 


1 Cost Per 
1 Bushel. 
1 $ .160. 


Cost Per 
[ Bushel. 
1 $ .155. 


1 Cost Per 
Bushel. 
1 $ .124. 


i Cost Per 
1 Bushel. 
1 $ .133. 



224 CORN. 

SOME IOWA FARMERS' ESTIMATES 

L. C. Greene, Johnson County. 

On the Basis of an Acre $1105 

Preparation of sod or breaking stalks i.oo 

Plowing 1.25 

Harrowing before planting 20 

Planting 25 

Harrowing after planting 20 

Four cultivations 1.40 

Husking 1.75 

Interest on ninety-dollar per acre land 4.50 

Taxes 50 

Total $11.05 

18.5 Iowa At 60 bushels yield per acre, the cost per bushel equals 18.5 cents; 

Green Co. , , , , 

at 40 bushels, 27.5 cents. 



John Sundberg, Monona County. 



On the- Basis of a Bushel 14 cents 

Cutting stalks (man and team) 4 mills 

Wear on cutter i " 

Rake and burning stalks 4 " 

Discing ground 16 " 

Wear on disc i " 

Listing for corn 10 " 

Wear on lister i " 

Planting the corn with planter 4 " 

Wear on planter i 

Cultivating first time 4 " 

Harrowing once 5 " 

Cultivating three times 12 " 

Wear on cultivator i " 

Hoeing ., . J .-^ .-'.'. . := n .'. iv«rCf . 'C ) i " 

Harvesting 40 " 

Land and taxes 32 " 

Wear on wagons i " 

14 Cents Fence ,. 15 " 

Monona°C(K Axle grease and oil ; some breakage. .~?}.-.^yV^.': i " 

Total 140 mills 



s 11 



IOWA FARMERS' ESTIMATES. 225 

F. H. Klopping, Pottawattamie County. 

Hasis of an Acre $5.60 

Ijrcaking and raking^ stalks $ .17 

Plowing 80 

Harrowing three times 20 14 cents 

Discing two times ^o Pottawatt- 

. ° -J amie Co. 

I'lanting 18 lowa 

Cultivating four times 1.60 

Husking corn 1.80 

Interest on machinery and horses and deterioration of 

same, about 45 

Interest on land 10 

Total $5.60 

\Vith a 50 bushel crop the cost per bushel would be 11.2 cents. A 
yield of 40 bushels would cost 14 cents per bushel. 

Fred Woolley, Decatur County. 
Field No. I— Fall Plowed Sod. 

On Basis of Acre $10.15 

Rent of land $ 4.00 

Plowing 1.50 

Harrowing three times at 15 cents 45 

Discing two times at 30 cents 60 

Seed Corn 35 

Planting 25 22.5 cents 

Plowing three times at 40 cents 1.20 10-^^^^^°' 

Cost of husking (yield 45 bushels) at 4 cents 1.80 



Total $10.15 

Yield 45 bushels, cost per bushel 22.5 cents. 

Field No. 2 — Spring Plowed Sod. 
Add the cost of another discing and figure on five bushels less per 
acre in yield. 

Field No. 3 — Spring Plowed Stalk Ground. 

Basis of Acre $ 8.45 

Rent of land 3.00 

Plowing the ground 1.25 

Harrowed two times at 15 cents 30 

Discing two times at 30 cents 60 

Discing once after plowing 30 jett|?sMi 

Seed corn 35 County 

Planting 25 

Cultivating three tinif^ ■ at dO cents 1.20 

Husking (yield 30 bushels) 4 cents 1.20 

Total $ 8.45 

Thirty-bushel yield, cost of one bushel 22.8 cents. 



226 CORN. 

W. A. Hook, Jefferson County. 

10 dollars per acre, or 25 cents per bushel. 

D. L, Pascal, Clinton County. 

Basis of Acre $ 9-75 

Plowing $ 1.35 

Harrowing 3° 

Planting ' 3° 

28.4 cents Seed 30 

^IX Cultivating 2.50 

Rent 5-00 

Total $ 975 

Add to this 4 cents per bushel for husking, the amount depending 
upon the yield. A 40 bushel yield at 4 cents per bushel would add 
$1.60 to the $9.75, or a total of $11.35. This w^ould be 28.4 cents per 
bushel. 

George M. Allee, Buena Vista County. 

Basis of 40 acres. 

40 bushels per acre or 1,600 bushels. 

$3.00 cost of a day's work, man and team. 

Hauling manure 6 days 

Breaking stalks with harrow 2 

Plowing (23^ acres per day) 16 

Harrowing twice before planting (20 acres per day) ... 4 

Planting (10 acres per day) 4 

Harrowing after planting 2 

Cultivating (6 acres per day), 3 times over 20 

For rainy days, break downs and probable discing. ... 6 " 

Total. .60 days 

60 days at $3.00 per day $180.00 

Seed corn (8 bushels) at $1.00 per bushel 8.00 

Use of tools, $1.00 per day for corn planter (4 days) .... 4.00 
24 8 cents 5° cents per day for harrow, cultivator and plow (44 

Buena Vista days) 22.00 

"lowa Breakage, hire of extra horses, use of manvtre spreader. . 8.00 

Interest on wages at 8 per cent for 6 months 8.88 

(Neither rent nor husking paid in advance) 

Rent ($3.25 per acre) 130.00 

Husking (3^^ cents per bushel, 1,600 bu.) 56.00 

Total.... $4 1 6.88 

Stalks value 20.00 

Net Cost.. $396.88 

$396.88 for 1,600 bushels, or 24.8 cents per bushel. 



IOWA FARMERS' ESTIMATES. 227 

Fred McCulloch, Iowa County. 

Forty Acres of Sod Plowed in Spring of 1906. 

Nine loads of manure per acre 

40 days for i man and 3 horses at $3.50 per day $140.00 

Plowing sod (40 acres) 2 men and 3 teams, 8 days 56.00 

Discing three times, i man and 2 teams, 6 days 35-00 

Harrowing four times, 2 teams, 6 days 30.00 

m 4^- ^ 1 .1 T/ J 20 cents 

J'lanting, I man and team, 23/2 days 7.00 lowacounty 

5^ bushels seed corn at $2.50 per bushel 13-75 ^°^^ 

Cultivating five times, i man and team, 30 days 90.00 

Husking, 70 bushels per acre, or 2,800 bushels- at 3 cents 

per bushel 84.00 

Rent 125.00 

Total $580.75 

A fraction over 20 cents per bushel. 

Neal Brothers, Linn County. 

Twenty acres of corn stalk ground. 

This ground should be disced and harrowed; then plowed, follow- 
ing the plow with the harrow, disced crosswise to furrow and har- 
rowed ; planted and harrowed at least three times before it comes up ; 
tluii cultivated four times. With good seed on good, average ground, 
corn raised in this way should yield from 60 to 90 bushels per acre. 

This makes the ground disced twice, plowed once, harrowed six 
times, planted and cultivated four times, or in other words, 40 acres 
disced, 20 acres plowed, 120 acres harrowed, 20 acres planted and 60 
acres cultivated. 

I man and 3-horse plow, nearly 3 acres per day for 7 

days, at $4.00 per day 'ij'l'., $ 28.00 

I man and 3 horses harrow 30 acres per da]^' for 4 days, 

at $4.00 per day 16.00 

I man and 3 horses disc 20 acres per day for 2 days, at 22 1-2 cents 

$4.00 per day 8.00 

I man and 2 horses plant 20 acres in i 1-4 days 4.00 

I man and 2 horses cultivate 8 acres per day for 10 days, 

at $3.00 per day 30.00 

3 bushels tested seed corn at $3.00 per bu 9.00 

Rent on 20 acres at $5.00 per acre 100.00 

For picking and cribbing at 5 cents per bushel, figuring 

60 bushels per acre 60.00 

Wear on machinery 10.00 

Total. .$265.00 
A yield of 1,200 bushels for $265 .00 equals 22^/^ cents per bushel. 



Unn county 
Iowa 



228 



CORN. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Frequent quotations have been made 
from "The Book of Corn." The results of the test which was car- 
ried on by the American Agriculturist are very complete, though 
somewhat out of date at present because of the higher price of farm 
labor. 

We wish to thank the Iowa farmers who took the pains to send 
us individual estimates. 



COLLATERAL READING: 

Corn Crop Tables of Standard Cattle Company, 

Ames, Nebraska. 
Cost of Producing Corn, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 97. 
Cost of Farm Crops, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 29. 
Cost of Producing Farm Products, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 48. 
Corn and Oats, Cost of Production, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 50. 



I 




CHAPTER XI. 

DISEASES AND INSECTS ATTACKING CORN 
DISEASES OF THE CORN PLANT 



CORN SMUT (Ustilago mays zca). The appearance of smut in 
corn fields is a common occurrence each year. The extent to which 
it is found it governed greatly by the favorable or unfavorable cli- 
matic and soil conditions which appear to have a corresponding effect 
upon both the growth of the corn plant and that of the corn smut. 
The damage done to the corn crop varies with the season. It is some- 
times considerable. The estimated loss in Ohio on the crop of 1895 
was $125,000. 

Description. Smut seldom attacks the corn plant before it has 
reached a height of two or three feet. Occasionally, however, smaller 
plants are affected. Small patches of a whitish color may be seen 
swelling on the surface of the leaves, which are usually attacked 
first. This infection in its first development may cause the leaf to 
take on a reddish appearance. Early in the growth of the infected 
part spots will turn from a whitish to a black color, due to the forma- 
tion of spores. As the plant matures the infection seems to be the 
greatest at the junction of the leaf and sheath. 

Quite frequently the tassel is found badly smutted, together with 
the greater portion of the stalk above the ear. The first joint below 
the tassel is probably the most common place of attack. The whole 
ear may be affected, or only a portion of it ; but after the rudimentary 
ears are developed from the lower nodes the brace roots are the only 
points of infection. This is due to the fact that the smut spores do 
not penetrate any other than growing tissue. When entrance has 
been secured a local infection sets in, the smut masses soon appearing 
near the point of entrance. 

Some of the infection of the corn smut is brought about by the 
spores — the black powder contained within the mass — but the infec- 
tions are chiefly due to the Conidia which are produced from the 
spore after germination. These are bead-like bodies which are borne 
at the ends of short branches of a thread which protrudes from the 



Climatic 

conditions 

influence 



Appears 
on the 
leaves 



Tassel 

frequently 

attacked 



Brace 
roots 

last part 
affected 



Caused by 
spores 



230 



CORN. 




CORN SMUT. 



231 



Smut balls 
contain 
many spores 



spore. These spores germinate very poorly in water, but grow rap- 
idly in nutrient solutions such as liquid manure. A well manured 
soil is favorable for their production. When one of these little co)i- 
idia is freed from the stem on which it grows and is carried by the 
wind, alighting upon an active growing portion of the corn plant, it 
soon germinates and sends out a thread-like mycelium whch pene- 
trates the tissues. Generally about two weeks' time intervenes be- 
tween the period of inoculation and the appearance of smut spores. 
From this time on growth is very rapid. These smut balls often 
attain a size larger than an ear of corn. Should a smut ball fall to 
the ground and favorable conditions present themselves, the above 
outlined life cycle is repeated. 

It is thought that the early infections come from last year's spores 
which germinate as soon as favorable conditions are at hand. The 
slender threads that are put forth by the conidinm when it alights f^idiy"^* 
on a growing portion, arc colorless and known as the mycelium. They 
send numerous branches into the cells of the plant, which draw from 
it nourishment for their own maintenance. These slender threads 
(the mycelium) develop very rapidly, and soon become a dense, felt- 
like mass. A little later practically the entire mass is converted into 
small round spores. 

Corn smut cannot be prevented by soaking the seed in fungicides, 
as is the case with oat smut and the stinking smut of wheat. This 
is due to the fact that the infection takes place after the plant begins 
its growth, and does not result from the spores being present on the Treating seed 
seed. Tlie smut of corn resembles the rust of wheat in its mode prevent smut 
of attack. If the smut balls are all removed from the stalks and 
destroyed, the percentage of infection will be greatly decreased. This 
practice is carried on to some extent by smaller farmers. The ex- 
pense incurred, however, is usually greater than the loss due to the 
smut. 

Loss Is In the Ears. 

Experiments carried on at the Kansas Agricultural College go to 
show that the loss to corn plants attacked by smut is chiefly in the 
grain, the weights of smutted and clean stalks being practically the the* e^af^ affected 
same, while the loss in the yield of corn amounts to about one-third, the^staik'* 
even though the ears themselves are not attacked. 

The following table from the Kansas Agricultural College counts 
the smutted stalks just as they came regardless of the place of in- 
fection : 



232 



CORN. 



WEIGHT OF STALKS AND EARS OF SMUTTED AND CLEAN CORN 

BY GRAMS. 
Smutted. 



Row 
Number 


Number of 
Stalks 


Weight of Stalks 
Total Average 


Weight of Ears 
Total Average 


69 
70 


19 
12 


4,421 
2,578 


233 
215 


2,781 146 
2,268 186 


Clean 




43 
53 


11,540 
10,684 


268 
201 


9,999 
11,183 


233 
211 



The average weight per stalk of the smutted corn is 225 grams, 

while the average weight of the clean corn is 229 grams, being but 

Little difference little better in weight of stalk. Tht average weight of the ear on 

weights of the smutted stalk is 162.8 grams, while the average weight of the 

smutted stalks ears on the clean stalks is 213.3 grams, being decided in favor of the 

ears on the clean stalks, representing a loss of 23.6 per cent in weight 

of ears for the smutted corn.* 

Comp'osition of Corn Smut. 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CORN SMUT COMPARED WITH CORN, 
CORN STALK AND CORN FODDER IN PER CENT. 





Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Nitrogen 
Free Extract 

29.6 
69.6 
17.0 
34.7 


Fiber 

24.7 

2.1 

11.0 

14.3 


Ash 


Corn smut 


8.3 
10.9 
68.4 
42.2 


13.1 

10.5 

1.9 

4.5 


1.4 

5.4 

.5 

1.6 


22.5 


Corn 


1.5 


Corn Stalk 


1.2 


Corn Fodder 


2.7 



Feeding smut 
to cattle 



The Bureau of Animal Industry has carried on extensive experi- 
ments to determine whether or not corn smut is injurious to cattle, 
the opinion being more or less prevalent that it is the cause of the 
corn-stalk disease, and also conducive to abortion in cows. As much 
as II pounds of corn smut per day was fed to some of the animals. 
They seemed to relish it and the conclusion was reached that if smut 
is eaten by cattle it need occasion no alarm, since the evil effects 
which have been attributed to it do not follow. 

THE BURRILL BACTERIAL DISEASE. In 1889 Professor 

Burrill, of Illinois.'''''' discovered a bacillus which is destructive to the 
growing corn plant. He describes its attacks as follows : 

"The young plant is first affected in the roots, and also in full 
grown corn stalks after midsummer, when it manifests itself by cer- 
tain discolored areas, more particularly on the leaf sheaths. An at- 
tack upon the very young plant means the dwarfing of its growth 
and destruction of the crop. A lessened yield and valueless fodder, 

•From Michigan Station. 

♦♦Bulletin No. 6, Ilinois Experiment Station, 1889. 






OTHER DISEASES 



233 



are the only results of infection of the more mature stalk. Leaf 
shoaths and even the dcvelopinf^ ear are often infected, showing a 
jelly-like deposition. The ear occasionally becomes a mass of rotten and^ear***^^ 
slime. The presence of the disease is noted to a greater extent some *"*'^''*'* 
years than others. The prevention has not been carefully studied as 
yet. Destroying afTected parts is the only sure way of absolute eradi- 
cation. This disease is sometimes known as 'corn blight.' " 

CORN WILT. F. C. Stewart, of the Geneva Experiment Station, 
New York, has identified another bacterial disease of corn. His 
observations are that the plants wilt and dry up, but do not roll 
up as in the case of lack of moisture. Young plants die in a few days, 
but the older plants live for some time. The disease has been known 
to destroy entire fields. Dr. Erwin F. Smith has investigated this 
disease and named the organism Pdeudomonas Slewariii. 

LEAF BLIGHT. The infection of the leaves of corn with the 
leaf blight fungus is not discernible without the use of the magni- 
fying glass. The almost round brownish spots are usually devoid of importance 
life. As yet the frequency of affected plants is so limited that no con- 
cern is felt regarding the economic importance of this fungous growth. 

MAIZE RUST (Puccinia sorghi Schw). "Maize rust is found 
wherever maize is grown, but principally in regions of considerable 
rainfall. The rust does not dififer materially in appearance from rusts 
of other grasses, particularly the Puccinia graminis of wheat and 
oats. The surface of the affected leaf and sheath displays small 
oblong or elliptical spots, which contain reddish brown spores. Kel- 
lerman has shown that only the iiredo and tclcuto stages may he 
included in the life cycle, although Arthur has identified the aecidial 
stage on Oxalis. It passes the winter in the tclcuto stage. Though 
fungicides are effective, the rust is not of enough economic impor- 
tance to warrant treatment. Pammel reports decreased yields of 
sweet maize due to the rust. The rust also occurs on sorghum and 
teosinte."* 

INSECT ENEMIES 

Tlie newly planted seed, the young plant, the growing stalk, the 
developing ear, and the stored grain, are all subject to insect enemies. 
Each year pests which have heretofore been of little economic import- 
ance gain in number until they destroy whole fields. The increased 
acreage of corn on land which has been cropped for a number of years 
favors the breeding of this insect life. 

The most disastrous insect enemies are here described and rem- 
edies and preventives suggested. 

'Page 246 of Hunt's "Cereals of Amorir.a." 



Common 
throughout 
corn belt 



CcntinuouB 
cropping with 
corn favors 
breeding of 
Insects 



234 



CORN. 




(Courtesy of Iowa State College) Fig. 106 

PLANT APHIDS AS SEEN IN THE TASSEL OF CORN. 






Lydia Moore Hart 



PLATE I. 
Fig, I — The Sked-Corn Maggot, I'cgomyia fiiscicfps, .iduli. Kig. 2 Tin- Corn 
lka-Beetle, Ch(stocueiiia piilicaria. Fig. 3— C confinis. 



OURTESV OF PROFESSOR S A FORBES. ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST 



CORN MAGGOTS. 



235 



INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GROWING CROP 

THE BLACK HEADED GRASS MAGGOT (Sciara sp.) Rot- 
ting seed corn W\ng in llie ground, is subject to very destructive at- 
tacks b}' this l)lack-headed grass maggot. Many maggots may infest a 



\ 



V 




Fig. 107. 
BEETLE OF THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOT WORM AT 
WORK EARLY IN THE SPRING. 
The stalk borer is also shown on the upper leaf. 

single grain and consume everything but the hull. S])routed grain is 
sometimes affected. Old sod land shows the majority of cases of in- 
fcstatir>n and destructive attacks. 

THE SEED CORN MAGGOT (Phorbia fusciccps, Zett.) This 
maggot cats the interior out of the sprouting corn kernel. l^ns]-)r(nited Eats 
kernels, if softened, are often slightly attacked. The adult is a small ^jJ^^'J^uting 
two-winged fly, looking very much like an ordinary house fly. Def- ''"°*' 
inite knowledge concerning the life history is not available, but 



236 



CORN. 




Forbes, of Illinois, states that the larvae have been seen from May 

17th to June 13th, pupae from June 7th to 15th, the adults emerging 

from June nth to August 7th. This species 
hibernates as a fly. A cupful of kerosene 
added to a bucket of dry sand makes a 
mixture which, when placed in small 
amounts at the base of the corn plant, 
prevents the adult female from depositing 
her eggs. Kainit and nitrate of soda act 
in a similar way when moistened. Any 

injured plants should be destroyed immediately. 

WIRE WORMS Drasfcriiis cicgaiis . If the seed fails to come or 

the corn plant suddenly presents a withering appearance when from 10 

to 15 inches high, it is very 



Stale 



(S. A. Forbes, Illinois 
Entomologist) 

Fig. 323. 

Black-headed Grass Maggot 

Scoria sp. 







^■^ 



^'^i^^^ 



Fig. 108. 

CORN PLANT SHOWING EFFECTS OF 

ATTACKS BY THE BILL BUG. 

Note that the holes in the leaves are in 
rows. 



probable that the wire worm 
is present, especially if the 
ground was in grass the 
year before, or two years 
previous. 

The wire worm is of a 
reddish brown color, varying 
from yelowish to reddish. 
It varies in length from half 
an inch to an inch and a half. 
Its body is slender, carrying 
about same width through- 
out and bearing very few 
hairs. The surface is hard 
and crust-like. The body has 
13 segments. On the three 
segments just posterior to 
the head are six pairs of 
short, stout legs, and on the 
under surface of the thir- 
teenth segment is a single 
leg, sucker-like in appear- 
ance. 

The eggs which produce 
in ofrass lands in the earth. The wire 

They may be 



the wire worm are laid 
in grass womi comiiig forth, feeds on the roots of grass 

lands £^^^j^^l j^-^ ^y^y Qf (^^^j. tame and wild grasses, but they are seldom 



found here in - sufficient numbers to make 



very great 








Lydla Moore Hart 



PLATE II. 

Fig. l—A/yoc/trous denticollis. Fig. 2-The Corn Wirkworm, Melanotm cribulosus. 
Figs. 3-5— Click Beetles, adults of other Corn Wireworms; 3 Drasteriiis elegans : 4 A^noies 
manciis / j A. piibescens. 



COURTESY OF PROFESSOR S. A. FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



WIRE WORM. 



237 



impression on the appearance of the grass lands. However, when the 
grafs land is broken up and the comparative number of plants which 
the field contains is few, as with corn, the wire worms have to con- 
centrate their labors more on the individual plants, and then it is 
that their presence is felt, the damage being done not only to the 
corn plants, but not uncommonly the seed is attacked and destroyed 
before the young plant can present itself. The wire worm attacks the 
corn kernel either before or after it has sprouted and not infrequently 
will a kernel be found into which the wire worm has made an en- 
trance. The roots of the plant are seriously injured, the smaller 
roots are often eaten away, while the larger ones are bored and fre- 
quently this boring is done through the underground part of the stalk. 
The total destruction of the plant generally results. This larvae stage 
lasts for two years. The pupating occurs in July or August, and in 
the course of three or four weeks a reddish beetle comes forth, known 
as the "click beetle," commonly remembered by the clicking sound and 
sudden springing of the beetle when placed upon its back. The beetle 
may either remain in the ground during the winter or may come to 
the surface, passing the time in sheltered places. This is the beetle 
that lays the eggs from which comes the brownish colored larva (wire 
worm) mentioned above. Other cereals are attacked by this pest, 
as are also some of the root crops. It bothers wheat, rye, barley, oats, 
timothy, clover, etc. ; and may be found attacking potatoes, turnips, 
beets, cabbage, onions, and many other crops. 



Wire worm 
cats kernel, 
roots and 
stalk 



of corn 



Prevention. Nothing can be done to eradicate this pest after it 
has attacked a plant without injuring the plant itself. Poisons of 
the most deadly sort have been applied to corn previous to planting 
without bringing the desired results. It appears that the only alterna- 
tive lies in a rotation of crops. The trouble lies in the fact that the Most damage 
larva stage lasts two years. The second year after the plowing ol 8ec(md"'^"^ 
the sod is when the largest damage is done to the corn field, due to 
the greater amount of grass that is present in tho field in which the 
larvae can live the first year after plowing. The scanty amount of 
grass the second year compels the worm to center its attacks more 
especially on the corn. Should the sod be plowed in the fall and 
sown to fall or winter wheat, seeding to clover the following spring, 
or sowing oats in the spring and seeding to clover, a crop may be had 
the following fall from one of these cereals, and the next year a croj) 
of clover may be harvested. It will be seen that in this way the larva is 
given the two years in which to mature and pupate. The small grain 
following the sod is not likely to be seriously injured. The clover 



238 



CORN. 



coming the second year when the pupating takes place, the ground will 
then be free of the larvae, and when fall plowed little fear need be 
entertained regarding the wire worm attacking corn the year follov;- 
ing, which would be the third year after breaking the sod, and the 
crops intervening would not have seriously suffered. 

When replanting is necessary, it is advisable to straddle the rows 
and leave the old plants standing, for if these are destroyed the worm 
will immediately attack the new plants and a second poor stand will 
result. A little later the old plants may be plowed out. 

Fall plowing assists greatly in destroying the pupae, bringing them 
to the surface where the birds can devour them, and the cold weather 
will help to retard their development. 

CUT WORMS. These caterpillars are exceedingly harmful at 
times, their damage being of a very injurious nature. They attack the 
young plant by eating off the leaves and portions of the stalk, often 
cutting the plant off close to the ground. This work is done at night. 
In the daytime they may be found hiding under clods or buried just 
beneath the surface of the ground. They have the conspicuous habit 
of curling up. Their larvae vary in color from a whitish to a dark 
brown. The skin is rather smooth, the body thick, generally marked 
by longitudinal lines with an occasional blotch. 




(S. A. Forbes, Illinois State Entomologist) 

Fig. 324. 
Olay-backed Cutworm. {Feltia filadiaria) Enlarged. 



The eggs which produce these worms are laid by grayish or brown- 
Moth i '^^^ colored moths, and are deposited in grass lands late in the season, 
grayish Tliese cggs hatch the same fall and the young larva immediately 
feeds upon the roots of the grasses until winter sets in, when it 
buries itself in the ground, curls up and waits for the warm days of 
early spring. Then it again resumes its activities, which so often 
prove disastrous to the prospective corn crop. Often the outer rows 
of a corn field are damaged severely, due to the cut worms coming in 
from an adjoining field of grass or clover. 

There is generally but one generation. However, there are a few 
species that have two and three broods per year. The larva has 
generally reached its maturity by July ist, when it buries itself in the 






PLATE III. 

Tlic White Grub; the beetle, egg, larva ;ind pupa; 
enlarged two and one-half diameters. 



WEB WORMS. 



239 



earth and begins to pupate. The pupa is leathery brown in appear- 
ance. A grayish or brown moth appears toward the hitter part of the 
summer. 

Prevention and Remedy. As the cut worm is most destructive to 

corn following grass, early plowing is one of the best methods of 

preventing its activities. Poison can be used to good effect by mixing caVbe 

. ■' ^ used 

])ar!s green with bran or mid- 

^1 dlings, one pound of former to 
30 of latter. This may be dis- 
tributed by means of a seed 
drill. Should the worms be in 
grass land bordering a corn 

1'^^^^^' %'^ *'^%.'^^l^"" field, the latter may be pro- 

n^W: ' tected by poisonmg fresh 

S^ ^ clover with a solution of paris 

S. A. Furbes, Staie Eniomologisi; of Illinois) 1 r 

„ green, one pound of pans 

Fig. 325. fe ' p 1 

green to 50 gallons of water 

and scattering this along the 
edge of the field. In replanting 
corn in a field infested with cut worms late planting is advisable. 




^S. A. Furbes, Staie Eniomologisi; of Illinois; 
Fig. 325. 

Clay-backed Cutworm (Feitia glad- 
iaria). Adult. 



THE SOD WEB WORM OR ROOT WEB WORM. (Several 
Species of "Crambus"). These caterpillars average al)out one- 
half inch in length when full grown, are pinkish red or brownish, Larva feeds 
and covered with rows of comparatively smooth dark spots, from the 
center of each of which springs a rather coarse hair. The injury done 
to corn is something like that inflicted by the cut worm, except that 
the web worm does not sever the entire stem, but eats a groove up 
one side. The greedy larva feeds during the night and lives during 
the day in a little silk-lined tube about one inch below the surface. 
The larva does not pupate before winter, but hibernates in the rilk- 
lined tube. In the spring its growth is completed. It then pupates 
and by June loth the imago is dropping eggs carelessly about in the 
grass. These hatch in from 10 to 20 days, when the larva again 
appears. It is not definitely known whether the larvae change to 
moths and another generation is produced for hibernation, or whether 
the first generation grows until autumn and then hibernates. 

Prevention and Remedy. The above outline of the life cycle de- 
mands the early fall plowing of sod which is to be used for corn the 
next year. But if the plowing has to be left until spring the web 



240 



CORN. 



•> «< 



►).- 



worm will be most disturbed if this operation is postponed until after 
May 25th. 

WHITE GRUB ( Lachiiosfcnia riigosa). The white grub is a very 

difficult pest with which to deal be 
cause it attacks a number of vari- 
eties of plants. 

The eggs from which the larvae 
are hatched are laid chiefly in grass 
land, although occasionally they may 
be deposited in fields of corn. The 
adult female is a rather large, thick. 
short beetle, having hard wing cov- 
ers "of a brownish color. They are 
commonly seen in the early summer 
flying about arc-lights, and are 
known as "June beetles" or "May 
beetles." These live but a short 
time. The males die soon after the 
sexes pair. The females begin lay- 
ing eggs in June, and by the first oS 
July have practically finished. These 
eggs are placed from an inch to 
four inches deep in the ground and 
hatch in from two to three weeks' 
time. 

The young grubs attack the roots 
of grass at once, and grow very rapidly during this first season. The 
following winter they hibernate in the same stage and live as larvae 
during the next summer until July, when they pupate. They exist in 
this state until the middle or latter part of August, when the adult 
form appears. The imago, or adult, usually remains right in its place 
of origin until early the next spring. Then it emerges as a "June 
beetle." The mating then begins and eggs are laid in June, completing 
the life cycle. 

The fact that the life history extends over almost three seasons 
makes its eradication that much more difficult. Sod is sometimes 
very seriously injured by these grubs. When the number of plants 
per acre is materially reduced, as when corn is planted on sod ground, 
the damage of the grubs is noticed to a greater extent. One grub 
attacking each hill of corn will show damage where the same number 
of grubs per acre on sod could not be noticed. Where the corn is 



(S. A. Forbes, Illinois State Entnmolo 
gibt) 

Pigs. 328 and 327. 

The common Sod Web-worm 

{Crambus trisecttis) 

Back and side views, much enlarged. 




PLATE IV. 
Corn Bill-bugs and larva, with injured corn plant. 



JRTESY OF PROFESSOR S A FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



CORN BILL BUG. 



241 



killed outright, or has a dwarfed appearance, having a yellowish tinge 
throughout, the indications point toward the presence of the grub. 
When grubs are present the roots of the corn plant will be found to 
be very short and stubby. The plant may be slightly bent, due to the 

fact that the disabled roots are unable 
to hold the stalk in an upright position. If 
the indications point to the presence of 
the grubs and they are not readily found, 
they may be discovered by digging down 
a foot or two from the plant. Corn of dif- 
ferent sizes is often attacked by the grub. 
There are several other species of the 
Lachnostcnia besides the genera cyclocc- 
phala, which do damage to the corn jjlant. 




(S. A. Forbes, Illinois State En 
tomologist) 

Fig. 329. 



Tlie common Sod Web-worm, 
adult. Slightly enlarged. 
( Crambus trisectus) 



Prevention and Remedy. Fall plowing is a very desirable and 
effective means of destroying many pupae and larvae. Sod that is 
badly infested, having been plowed in the fall, may be almost freed 
from grubs by turning in hogs. The first crop of corn should be kept 
as free from weeds as possible in order to prevent the adults from 
depositing eggs for a future brood. Clover is seldom injured by the 
white grub ; neither is the grass growing in the clover field. Pota- 
toes, strawberries and beets are often attacked ; also young larches, 
evergreens and tender rooted shrubs and fruit and forest trees. One 
or two seasons of clover will eliminate the grub sufficiently to allow 
the planting of corn in comparative safety. 



Turn in 
hogs on 
fall 
plowing 



CORN BILL BUG (Several species of the genus Sf^Iiciiof>honis.) 
Unlike the other pests of corn, the bill-bug represents the adult stage. 
That is, his activities are disastrous during the imago rather than 
larval stage. The damage done is measured by the number and size 
of beetles. Corn on sod land is most frequently affected. 

The corn bill-bugs vary in size and color, but most of them are a 
dull black. Their surfaces are pitted. They are snout beetles, having 
a pair of minute jaws situated on the end of this protrusion. The 
larvae of these beetles live on the roots of grass and are frequently 
seen embedded in the root bulbs of timothy, in coarse sedges, and in 
salt grass. The larva is white, rarely found in corn fields, and is with- 
out feet, having a hard head of a brown or blackish color. Pupating 
does not take place until fall, the winter being passed in the adult 
stage, and generally about the field where they first appeared. The 
bill-bug does not travel far. 



Damage 
donfl by 
adult 



Beetle 
dull black 



242 



CORN. 



Works 
with 
head 
down 



With the warm days of spring the bill-bug comes forth, ready to 
attack the young corn plant. It will generally climb the stalk and 
thrust its snout down in among the young leaves, often causing a 
very serious injury. These punctures may be noted as the plant 
grows as parallel holes running across the leaf. Each row of holes 
is made by a single puncture when the leaves are young and closely 
rolled together. When the stalk is young and tender the corn bill- 
bug will also bore into this portion of the plant. When doing this it 
works with head down. So intensely absorbed is the bill-bug when at 
work that not infrequently the plant may be removed from the field 
without the beetle ceasing its labors. 

The life cycle is very simple. The eggs are laid in May and June 
in the roots and stems of grasses. The larvae appear in June, July 
and August. Pupation occurs at once and the beetles come forth in 
the late summer or early fall. Hibernation takes place in the imago 
stage. 

Prevention and Remedy. Sod corn which is planted after the 
middle of June is rarely injured by the bill-bugs. Many farmers who 
have had some experience with this pest plant their sod land the last 
thing in the spring. There is a bill-bug, however, which is occasion- 
ally found in swampy places, that might attack the corn as late as 
July. All the species are much hindered in their activities by fall 
plowing. 

CORN ROOT APHIS (Aphis maidi-radicis). The corn-root aphis ' 
is commonly known as the corn-root louse. Careful investigation 
^his^af ^^^ shown that this pest is increasing from year to year. The injury 
done by the aphis consists in sucking the liquid food from the grow- 
ing plant. Close examination reveals no outward injury from this 
source, but the plant will present a dwarfed appearance, especially in 
certain patches in the field, sometimes on low ground. The leaves 
will take on a yellowish or reddish cast, the lower ones being afifected 
first, and later the whole plant shows a lack of thrift and vigor. 

The adult aphis is bluish green in color. It can thus be distin- 
guished from the grass louse, which is white with a blackish head, 
there being no appearance of green. The eggs are laid in the fall 
and the ants store them away over winter. The first hatching gen- 
erally takes place in the spring before the corn is planted, the young 
living for a time on the roots of weeds which are laid bare by the 
ants. Smartweed is especially liked by the young aphids.. As soor 
as the young corn plant starts, the ants immediately remove the aphids 
from the roots of the weeds to the corn roots. The ants have been 



Bluish 

green in 

color 




PLATE V. 



The Corn Root-Louse, {Aphis maidiradicis). B, the common wingless and, A, the 
winged viviparous females; F,the pupa of the winged female; C.the oviparous female, occuring 
in autumn, and D, its egg; E, the worker of the root-louse ant {Lasiiis niger atncricanus). 



:OURTESY OF PROFESSOR : 



FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGt! 



I 



CHINCH BUG. 



243 



known to burrow hills of corn in advance and seize the winged aphids 
that would happen that way and bear them to their subterranean home 
on the roots of the corn plant. The first generation of the corn-root 
aphis is wingless, and is therefore confined to fields previously in 
corn. The second generation consists both of winged and wingless generations 
aphids. The winged aphids may travel to other fields, but they gen- season 
erally do not become sufficiently numerous to aflfect fields not in corn 
the previous year. It is generally November before those of the vivi- 
parous generation (those producing living young) are all dead. After 
this time the sexual generation is presented. These lay the eggs in 
the late fall ready for the ants to store away. In the spring the 
above outlined life history is repeated. It is estimated that each 
female will give birth to 12 or 15 young, although the life period 
of the first three generations is but 19 days. There are some 10 to 12 
generations in one season. 

The apparently disinterested guardianship of the ants is not en- 
tirely without profit. The aphis has been termed the "ant's cow," due 
to the fact that it excretes a sweet liquid called "honey dew" through 
the two small tubular projecticms situated on each side of the back 
near the caudal end. The ants are very fond of this liquid, which they 
obtain by tapping the aphids lightly on the back. The presence of 
ants about a hill of corn almost always means that the aphids are at 
work on the roots of the plant. 



"Ants' 
cows" 



Prevention and Remedy. No other crop is particularly liable to be 
injured by the corn-root aphis, with the exception, possibly, of broom 
corn and sorghum. An instance has been noted in Kansas where 
sorghum was badly infested. A rotation of crops is the only method 
by which a field can be relieved from the serious attacks of this pest. ^J[g°^„, 
Inasmuch as no crops following corn are seriously injured by the 
lice there need be no fear in plowing up infested corn ground and 
sowing to some other cereal. Fall plowing disturbs the homes of the 
ants and destroys large quantities of eggs of the aphis. Clean culti- 
vation, especially on low ground, prevents the deposition of eggs in 
such weeds and grasses as are commonly found in marshy places. 
Corn planted on ground not previously infested may be attacked 
by the winged generation, but no serious damage usually follows. 

THE CHINCH BUG (Blissus leucopterus). The injury due to 
the chinch bug varies from year to year. Some states have suffered sucking 
some fifteen to twenty million dollars in a single year. Its 
ravages are worse during continued dry spells, and corn plants at- 



insect 



244 CORN. 

tacked by it present an exceedingly wilted appearance, corresponding 
exactly to what might be expected from continued drought. The sap 
may be completely drawn out of the growing plant by this sucking 
insect, the result being that whole fields will be flattened to the ground. 
Corn is especially liked and not uncommonly attacked by the chinch 
bug. Beginning on one side an army of these insects may lay low an 
entire field. 

The adult, which hrs passed the winter concealed under old rub- 
bish, comes forth in the spring very early. By the last of April the 
female begins to deposit eggs and continues laying throughout the 
month of May. These eggs are usually deposited at the base of 
young wheat plants, or of other small grains. By the middle of May 
the first eggs begin to hatch. The eggs being laid at no regular in- 
tervals, broods do not appear in order, but young are found in all 
stages of development. When it first hatches, the chinch bug is very 
red in color and exceedingly small. As it matures it goes through 
a process of moulting until the adult stage is reached at the time of 
the fourth moult. The adult has wings and winters over to lay the eggs 
the following spring. Its color varies, the head and thorax being 
black, and a black blotch is seen at the middle of each side. The 
center of the back presents a white cross. The old chinch bugs which 
winter over are most all gone by the middle of June. The eggs of 
the second generation are generally laid in the corn field at the base 
of any weeds or grass growing in the row. The young chinch bug 
of the first generation feeds upon the small grain and after the fields 
are harvested the corn fields are more likely to be attacked. The 
young of the generation feeds for a time upon the weeds and grass, 
then attacks the corn directly. 

Prevention and Remedy. The rise and fall of a siege of chinch 
bugs varies, the period of annual increase being longer than the per- 
iod of decline. They may get more numerous continually for tlrree 
or four years, and then suddenly disappear. Premises kept free from 
Tar line rubbish are less inviting as wintering quarters for the adult bugs 
which hibernate and lay the eggs the following spring. To prevent 
the onward march of the chinch bug, a strip about lo feet wide may be 
plowed between the corn and the infested field. A part of this, at 
least three feet in width, should be very finely pulverized. A furrow 
should then be made in this pulverized strip, making the sides as 
vertical as possible. In the bottom of this eight-inch furrow, at in- 
tervals of 10 feet, dig holes at least two feet deep. As the line of 




PLATE VI. 
The Chinch-bug; five stages of development and the egg. 



COURTESY OF PROFESSOR S. A. FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



1 



ARMY WORM. 



245 



emulsion 



Grass 
Grass lands 

its home 



march is intercepted by this ditch the invaders fall to the bottom, are 
unable to climb the other side, and finally fall into deeper holes. A 
short log may be dragged up and down this trench by a horse, thus 
destroying the pests as they enter. Kerosene poured upon the bugs 
in the deeper holes kills them effectively. Another resort is to place 
a line of tar between the first trench and the corn field. If this is 
renewed twice or three times daily it is very effective. 

When the chinch bugs are on the plants they may be destroyed Kerosene 
by spraying with kerosene emulsion made as follows : 

Dissolve half pound of soap (hard or soft) in a gallon of water 
by boiling; then remove from stove and stir thoroughly; add two 
gallons of kerosene ; mix thoroughly by pumping this fluid back 
into itself by means of a common spray pump. Before application 
add fifteen quarts of water to each quart of mixture. This spray 
should be applied before ten o'clock in the morning, if possible. 
Enough should be applied so that the insects will be washed off and 
will be seen floating in the emulsion at the base of the plant. As an 
economical process this cannot be recommended on a large scale. 

ARMY WORM (Hcliophila unipuncta) The army worm be- 
longs to a large family of insects known as the Noctuidac 
lands being its natural home, it is present to a limited extent every 
year. The mature insects are dull brown moths, having a peculiar 
white spot in the center of each anterior wing, from whence comes 
the name "unipuncia" The body is about three-fourths of an inch 
in length in the adult. The eggs, which are usually laid in the termi- 
nal leaf sheath of grasses and grains, are small, globular, and white. 
Dr. Riley* found eggs deposited in strawstack bottoms, hay ricks, old 
corn shocks, and even two-year-old corn stalks lying on the ground 
in the meadow. His estimate of a single female laying from 500 to 
700 eggs accounts for the rapid increase of the worms under favorable 
conditions. These eggs hatch in from 8 to 10 days. After feed- 
ing on anything of succulence about it, the larva is full grown in 
25 to 30 days, attaining a length of i 1-2 inches. When young they 
travel like a measuring worm, are dark, naked caterpillars with longi- 
tudinal stripes running the full length of the body. A very marked 
broad stripe on each side is characteristic. The pupa stage, which 
lasts about 2 weeks, is passed in rubbish on the ground. The imago 
or adult comes forth and begins to lay eggs again in 6 to 8 
days. This, in all, gives 7 to 8 weeks for the life cycle in 
midsummer. There are usually from 2 to 3 broods each year 
in the northern states. The last brood hibernates either as larvae or 
pupae. The moths appear very early the next spring. 

*U. S. Department of Agntultiirc Report 1881-18S2, P. 90-01. 



Larva 
1 to IV2 
inches 



2 to 3 
broods 
per year 



246 



CORN. 



Color 



Prevention and Remedy. Some bacterial diseases attack the lar- 
vae. Insect parasites destroy great numbers, yet the pest must be 
combated. If the worms are marching toward a field, a deep furrow 
in front of them will capture a great many. Holes should be dug 
in the furrow every lo or 15 feet. The worms after falling into these 
holes may be killed by kerosene. In pasture lands, which are smooth, 
the caterpillars may be crushed by a heavy roller. 

STALK BORER (Papaipema nitela). This caterpillar is very well 
known. It is sometimes called the "Heart Worm" because of its 
varies characteristic attacks, boring as it does into the heart of the stem. 
with ag9 j^ jg from an inch to an inch and a quarter long when matured, vary- 
ing from a purplish brown to a brownish white in color, according 
to age. It may be told by the white stripes which it bears. These 
are five in number, one extending along the entire center of the back 
with two on each side. The stripes on the sides are broken, there 
being none on the first four segments of the abdomen. This gives 
it the appearance of being pinched or injured. The eggs which pro- 
duce these larvae have not as yet been found, but it is commonly be- 
lieved that the eggs are laid in the fall in grass land, and that these 
hatch during the same fall or the next spring. When first hatched, 
the larvae live upon the weeds and grasses which are at hand. When 
they attack these it is readily noticed, because the tops of the plant 
turn to a whitish color, due to the entrance of the larvae within the 
stem. The rest of the plant may remain green. This is not an un- 
common sight along the roadsides. As the worm grows in size it 
looks for new feeding ground where it may find thicker stemmed 
plants upon which to feed, and in this respect it seems not to be 
particular. It attacks wheat, oats, timothy, potatoes, tomatoes, rhu- 
barb, and many other woody stemmed plants. 

Corn is attacked generally when it is from 2 to 15 inches high. 

A small hole will be noticed in the corn stalk where the stalk borer 

burrows entered. The burrow within the stem runs upward from this entrance 

within .... ^ 

the stem varying in size with the maturing of the larvae. When the cater- 
pillar is full grown it soon pupates generally within the last plant 
attacked. This commonly occurs below the opening at which it en- 
tered. The moth is rather mouse colored and flies by night. 

Prevention and Remedy. When a corn plant is attacked by a 
stalk borer, there is no remedy that can be applied that will success- 
fully combat the intruder without doing injury to the plant itself. 
The place of eradication is where the larvae first appear, namely, in 




PLATE VII. 
The Army-worm, with pupa, moth, and egg. 



BTESY OF PROFESSOR S- A FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



NORTHERN CORN ROOT WORM. 



247 



grassy places. Here they may be discovered by the tops of the grass 
attacked turning whitish in color and dying. This grass should be 
moved immediately and burned or fed to stock. It is generally the 
outer borders of the corn fields that are injured by the stalk borer. 
The damage done to the corn fields is limited. Whole fields are not 
attacked by the stalk borer as in the case of the other corn pests, al- 
though it is known to have destroyed 15 acres at Elmira, Illinois in 
a single season. In Greene County, Iowa, in 1908, a 3 acre jMcce 
of corn was ruined by the ravages of this worm. 




(Chittenden, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) 
Fig. 326. 

Stalk-borer (J/i/r/roecm mtela) &, adult; b, half-grown 
larva; c, mature larva in burrow; d, side of one of its 
segments; ?,, pupa. All slightly enlarged. 

THE NORTHERN CORN ROOT WORM.* This little larva, or 

1 rr 1 r • 1 1 i 1 • • ^^gS laid 

worm, IS al)out two-fifths of an inch long, and approaches a pin in in corn 
thickness. It is Avhite, with the exception of its head, the top of the ^'"^ 
first segment, and a spot on the last segment, which arc of a brown- 
ish color. 

Life History.** The eggs from which this larva comes arc laid in 
the ground, an inch or more beneath the surface, and rarely outside 
of the corn field. Here they remain during winter awaiting the warm 
days of early summer, and about the middle of June the worm comes 
forth in search of what is apparently its only food, the roots of the 

*This investigation carried on by E. P. Humbert under the personal supervision of M. L. 

Bowman. 

**See Eighteenth Report of Illinois State Entomologist, by I-'orbes. 



248 CORN. 

corn plant. The corn roots are at once attacked, the larvae con- 
cealing themselves within, not burrowing through the middle of the 
root, but in a spiral, longitudinal direction in the woody portion which 
^not lies just beneath the outer covering. This burrowing causes the roots 
roJtso^ to decay and die. There is every evidence to lead us to believe that 
crops the corn-root worm does not live on the roots of clover, timothy, oats, 
wheat, barley or rye ; although observations in Kansas indicate that 
the roots of sorghum afiford a home for the larvae. 

Some of the corn-root worms will have reached maturity by the 

latter part of June. Others will be found working in the corn roots 

as late as August. When the larvae have reached maturity, they leave 

Beetles are the roots of the corn, but remain in the ground about them and begm 

grass green , r • • i i i i i o 

to pupate, the worm transiormmg into the adult or beetle, boon 
small grass-green beetles will be seen, about one-fourth of an inch 
in length, which come forth from the pupa and are found feeding 
upon the silks ; also upon the pollen grains which have fallen upon 
the leaves of the plant, generally about the axis. 

The beetles represent the adult stage. They do very little damage 
to the plant, but may be seen throughout the months of August and 
September, and often during October. During th^ latter part of 
September and the first part of October, most of the female beetles 
will have buried themselves in the ground a short distance from the 
hill of corn. They will then deposit their eggs, which the following 
spring will hatch out into the corn-root worms. Seldom are the eggs 
deposited outside of the corn field. In fact, it may be said that the 
corn-root worm is dependent for its food upon the roots of the corn 
plant. 

How Its Injury Is Noticed. The corn-root worm may be found 

in the corn field in spots and can be detected in the early part of the 

season by the appearance of the corn, showing a tendency to grow 

less rapidly, although it may keep green, due to the fact that the root 

system has not been damaged to such an extent but that some nourish- 

pjgi^ ment can be afiforded the plant. Again, where the ground has been 

''dwarfted '" corn Several years, it is not uncommon to find that the entire field 

appearance pj-gsents a dwarfed appearance throughout the season. It fails to 

produce more than nubbins, many of the stalks being entirely barren, 

due to the decaying and rotting of the root system, which is always 

the case where the roots have been attacked. In this condition, the 

roots are unable to support the plant with proper nourishment for 

maintaining the growth of the stalk, and at the same time for putting 





FIG. B 



FIG. A 




FIG. C 




FIG. D 



Charlotte M. King. Artist 



PLATE VIII. 



Corn Root Wokm, {Diabrotica lungicurnis). A, Beetle; 13, I'upa; C, Larva; U, Larva 
1 Corn Koot. 



i 



COMPARATIVE GROWTH. 



249 




250 CORN. 

forth an ear. Due to the lack of support necessarily brought about 
through the injury to the root system, the plants are very easily top- 
pled over, and are found lying in all directions, especially after a hard 
rain. Should there be a brisk breeze whole fields are often laid low 
(See figure ii8), when if it were not for the corn-root worms they 
would not have shown the effect in the least (See figure No. 114). 

When corn that has not been affected by the corn-root worm has 
been blown down, it is usually found that if the ground is firm, the 
corn stalk is broken some distance above the surface. The corn roots 
remain intact, that portion of the stalk below the break remaining 
in an upright position. When the corn-root worms have been work- 
ing on the corn, this breaking of the stem does not occur. The whole 
plant falls. The stubby roots may often be seen protruding from the 
dirt about them, and the top of the plant endeavoring to take an up- 
right position, as shown in (figure 116). 

When the ground has been in corn but one year the damage will 
not be particularly apparent the year following. Quite frequently the 
presence of the corn-root worm is not suspected until the small grass- 
green beetles are found upon the plant. These beetles begin coming 
forth about the time, or a little before the plant puts forth its shoots 
and tassels, and will be found feeding on the silks and pollen. It 
is very common to find fields which are termed "old" and "run out" 
so that they will not produce corn, which are nothing more or less 
than lands which are suffering from the ravages of the corn-root worm. 

The hills of corn as shown in figure 109 represent the average of 
the fields from which the samples were taken. Each bundle in the 
picture is composed of four representative hills from fields which had 
been in corn i, 2, 3, and 4 years respectively. The 4 hills appear 
separately in the Figs, no, in, 112, 113. The great variation in 
the strength of the root system and the number of corn-root worms 
taken from hills representing ground in corn for the first, second, 
third, and fourth years will be noted. Each hill was secured by put- 
ting a 12 inch spade in the ground full length around the entire hill 
at a radius of 12 inches, after which the plants were pulled up. Then 
the roots were placed upon a sheet; also the loose dirt out of the hole. 
This experiment was begun July 26, 1906. Many of the larvae having 
left the roots and entered into the pupa stage, were found in the loose 
dirt. 

The extensive development of the roots of these plants is to 
be especially noted in contrast with those in the following illustra- 
tions, especially in Figs. 112 and 113. It is very uncommon to find 



J 



ROOT DEVELOPMENT FIRST YEAR. 



251 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) Fig. 110. 

POUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOR THE FIRST \EAR. 

Note the extensive root development. There was one corn root worm. The 
ground was in clover the previous year. 



252 



CORN. 



■ii I [ I ■■ mM^ mmmm-'tmm'iimmm'f^^'m 



nmfim^tmmfmtigtif 



ii m ii mi 1 , 11 . 11 1) 111 




Fig. 111. 

FOUR HILLS REPRESENTING GROUND IN CORN FOR THE SECOND 

YEAR. 

Note a lighter root development. Twenty-four corn root worms were taken 
from the four hills. 



ROOT DEVELOPMENT THIRD YEAR. 



253 



corn-root worms in ground that is in corn for the first year. Tlie i 
corn-root worm can only be accounted for by the fact that this field 
was but a short distance from one that had been in corn for 4 
years, a beetle having strayed to the nearby field before she had de- 
posited all her eggs. 



mfmmr4mmi n * |'" i ■ 



- iTi' '4.1 - 




^^s ^s ^^ -^1 

^^tiC* ^^§ ,i?^ ^Sl 

^ « ^ 1 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) Fig. 112. 

Four hills representing ground in corn for the third year. Number of corn 
root worms in each hill, numbered from left to right, 65, 70, 31, and 83 
worms, respectively. 



It should be noted that the number of the corn-root worms is in- 
creasing very rapidly as the number of years increase that the ground 
has been in corn; also, the plants are getting much smaller and the 
extent of the root system is being very noticeably and seriously re- 
duced, 



254 



CORN. 



In Figure 117 the curvature of the stalks will be noted, the root 

system having been sufficient up to the present time to maintain a 

!ffecte/*ifa^e fairly vigorous growth in stalk, but not sufficient to maintain the 

^ poSi weight of the stalk, which is therefore bending over. The roots were 




I 









^1 



■mP' 




(Courtesy Iowa State College) Fig. 113. 

Four hills representing ground in corn for the fourth year. Number of corn 
root worms taken from each hill, as numbered from left to right is 161, 
150, 125, and 161 respectively. Note the stubby roots and the large num- 
ber of corn root worms found in each hill. (Ground in alfalfa five years 

. before. 



found to be badly lacerated, many of them having rotted off entirely.! j 
The plants were very backward in sending forth shoots, resulting inlj 
the production of ears of inferior size. 

The plants are seen to be very much dwarfed, the corn-root worm 
having almost completely destroyed the root system; so much so 



REMEDY— ROTATION OF CROPS. 



255 



Plants are 
more or 
less baiieo 



that the plants have made a very weak growth. It could not be 
expected that they would produce more than nubbins. The amount 
of nourishment which the roots have furnished these plants has been 
necessarily so small that even a fair sized plant has not been pro- 
duced. Some of the plants present an erect appearance, because there 
was not sufficient weight in the stalk to cause them to topple over. 

This shows that the best results cannot be had by continual crop- 
ping with corn. They may be obtained only by practicing a proper 
system of rotation. After the ground has been in corn for the second 
year it is subject to serious ravages by the corn-root worms, which 
result in a very noticeable weakening in the corn plants and a very 
material decrease in the yield of corn per acre, due to the lacerating 
and decaying of the root system. 

The injury done by the corn-root worm becomes very apparent 
after a wind or heavy rain, especially in fields which have been in 
corn for 3 and 4 years or more. 

Figures 114, 115, 116, 117 represent ground in corn for the first, 
second, third, and fourth years, respectively, and also the fields from 
which the representative hills were taken, as shown in Figures no, 
III, 112, 113. 

From 125 to 161 corn-root worms were found to the hill. The 
roots were badly lacerated and decayed, causing the whole plant to stubby 
fall. The stubby ends of the roots could be seen protruding from 
the dirt about them. 

Yield. It is to be expected that the yield of corn per acre would 
necessarily vary in fields where continuous cropping of corn had been 
practiced. The following contrast will be noted in the yield of corn 
per acre on ground in corn for the first and fourth years, respectively : 

First year, from clover sod, 72.4 bushels 

Fourth year, from alfalfa sod* 45.1 bushels 

From the above it will be seen that the difference in the yield of 
corn on ground in corn for the first year from that of ground in corn 
for the fourth year, was 27.3 bushels per acre, or 60 per cent more 
corn in favor of the former. 

Remedy. — Rotation of Crops. Nothing can be done to help 
corn that is attacked by the corn-root worm, but due to the fact that 
this worm lives entirely upon the roots of the corn plant, 
it is simple to combat them, a rotation of crops being sufficient. The 
ground which is infested with the corn-root worms which hatch out 
next spring will die — simply starve to death. The best results will 

*Alfalfa, a legume, euriches ihe soil the same as clever. 



Boots 
are 



CORN 




Fig. 114. 
The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the first 
year. Note how straight the plants are. (Ground was in clover the 
previous year.) 




Fig. 115. 
The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the second 
year. Effect of wind and rain is a little more noticeable, but only in a 
comparatively few plants. 






PLATE IX. 

The Corn Worm: light and dark individuals, pupa, moth, and egg, with 
injured ear of corn. 



OURTESr OF PROFESSOR S, A FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



CORN DOWN BECAUSE OF WORMS. 




Fig. 116. 
The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the third year. 




Fig. 117. 
The above cut shows the field representing ground in corn for the fourth 
year. (Ground in alfalfa five years before. 



258 



CORN. 



be had by keeping the ground in corn but for two years in succession 
and then rotating with small grains and legumes. By practicing a 
proper system of crop rotation, the ground will be more productive. 
This is also the very best method of combating all insect pests so 
injurious to our farm crops. 

THE GRASSHOPPER ( Acrididae ) . The injury to corn due to 
hoppers is usually confined to the border rows near a pasture or 
meadow. The grasshoppers devour the silks and eat away the husks, 
thus preventing pollination. The lower leaves may be consumed in 
some cases. The seriousness of this pest is more marked in certain 
years. The "grasshopper dozer" has proved a very effective means 
of eradication. This consists of a shallow pan filled with kerosene 
placed upon a sled or low wheels and protected in the rear by an up- 
right canvas. The molested grasshoppers jumping against this can- 
vas drop immediately into the kerosene and are killed. 

*"The Criddle Mixture has proved effective for poisoning grass- 

Criddie hoppers in Illinois and in Canada. This mixture is composed of one 

''*^^'"® part, by measurement, of paris green to 120 parts of horse droppings, 

preferably fresh; or about a pound of paris green to half a kerosene 

barrel of the droppings, with a pound of salt in addition if the material 

is not fresh." 

THE EAR WORM (Heliothis arniiger). The ear worm is also 
K^own as the corn worm, cotton boll-worm, tomato worm, and to- 
batxo bud worm. It varies in color from a light green to a brown 
with light and dark stripes running lengthwise of the body. Its legs 
are dark, head yellow, body slender and nearly hairless. It is noticed 
most especially when feeding on the corn ear just beneath the husks. 
This worm may feed on the leaves by making small holes here and 
there. Early in the season it feeds on garden truck. The furrow 
made on the ear of corn begins at a round hole in the husk and extends 
spirally in a longitudinal direction, often reaching half way down the 
ear. Decay usually sets in at once and the damage is accelerated in 
this manner. Sweet corn is most commonly infested. 

There are 3 generations in a single season. They hibernate 

in the pupa stage. The moth comes forth in early April and soon 

Three begins to lay eggs. Each female may produce from 200 to 300. The 

la one eggs soon hatch and the caterpillars reach their maturity in 3 

weeks. Then they pupate. 3 generations go through this cycle 

in one season. The larvae of the first generation live chiefly on the 

*Page 395 of Bulletin 95 of Illinois. 



Feeds on 
the ear 



4 



^'^T^ 














7^ 










PLATE X. 

The Angoun^ois Grain Moth: larva, pupa, moth, and egg. with injured 

kernel and ear of corn. 

OF PROFESSOR S » rORBES, ,..,NO,S STATE E.TOMOLOG.ST 



I 



ANGOUMOIS GRAIN MOTH. 



259 



leaves and young shoots of the corn plant; the larvae of the second 
generation live in the tassels, silks, and young ears ; while the larvae 
of the third generation will attack the maturing ears. 

Prevention and Remedy. This pest has not as yet been success- 
fully combated. Fall plowing destroys a great many of the pupae, 
in which stage hibernation occurs. Where corn follows corn such a 
practice cannot be followed except in a limited way. 

Insects Injurious to Stored Corn. 

THE ANGUMOIS GRAIN MOTH (Sitofroga cerealella). The 
adult is a small, light-gray moth, with a wing expanse of one- 
half inch. The eggs are of a pale red color. The larva which has 
a brown head, tapers gradually caudad, being covered with numerous 
hairs. The pupa is of a darker brown color. The moth deposits the 
tgg on the grains of corn or wheat, either in the field or in the granary, 
usually the latter. The eggs are laid between the rows of corn. In 
4 or 5 days the larva hatches out and lives upon the germ and 
starchy part of the kernel. In 5 weeks it has attained its growth. 
It then burrows to the crown of the kernel, makes an opening, seals 
it over, and pupates for a few days. The adult comes out through 
this opening and the life cycle is complete, requiring less than 6 
weeks. The length of time depends upon the temperature. Warm 
spring days bring out the imagos very rapidly. 

Prevention and Remedy. The careful removal of all refuse and 
old corn each year during the summer will prevent the moths from 
having anything upon which to deposit their eggs. Carbon-bisulphide 
(CS2), a colorless, very volatile liquid, is the most effective means 
of destruction of the moths. This should never be breathed by man 
or other animals, and a lighted match should never be brought in 
contact with the gas. In a moderately tight bin one pound of the preventive 
bisulphide will effectively fumigate one hundred bushels of grain. The remedy 
compound vaporizes rapidly, and being heavier than air, it soon smks 
and becomes thoroughly diffused throughout the bin. If the sulphide 
is simply placed in shallow pans on top of the grain the results will 
be accomplished. Where seed is racked or hung up, the pans must 
be elevated above the grain which is to be fumigated. Several ap- 
plications may be necessary to destroy all the moths as they appear 
from time to time. Grain which has been fumigated is not injurious 
for feeding or seeding purposes. 

THE GRAIN WEEVIL fCalandra granaria). The grain weevil 
has a hard body of a uniform chestnut brown color. The beetle 
is short, stout-bodied, and about one-seventh of an inch long. The 



CS2 as a 



k 



260 CORN. 

thorax is marked with punctures arranged longitudinally. The eggs 
are deposited singly in the grain. The female punctures the grain 
with its snout and in this cavity places its egg. The larva comes 
forth in a few days, develops in the grain, and emerges as an adult. 
The life cycle requires about 40 days. 

Treatment similar to that for the grain moth will eradicate the 
grain weevil. However, such treatment must be much more thor- 
ough. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

Much of our information has been drawn from the researches of 
Forbes and Chittenden. 

We are especially indebted to Forbes for the colored plates. 

The photographs of corn affected by the Northern corn-root worm 
were taken from the plots of the Soils and Farm Crops Departments 
of the Iowa State College. 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Corn Bill Bugs and Root Louse, 
Farmers' Bulletin No. 259. 

Corn Smut, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 69. 

Corn Root Worms, 

U. S. Department (Bureau of Entomology) Circular 59. 
Sweet Corn (Bacterial Disease of), 

New York (Geneva) Bulletin No. 130. 
Corn Smut, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 62. 
Indian Corn, The More Important Insect Injuries to, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 95. 
Smut of Indian Corn, 

Ohio Bulletin No. 10. 
The Corn Bill Bugs in Illinois, 
' Illinois Bulletin No. 79. 

Field Experiments and Observations on Insects Injurious to 
Indian Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 104. 
The Slender Seed Corn Ground Beetle, 

U. S. Department of Entomology, Circular No. 78. 
Insect Injuries to the Seed and Roots of Corn, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 44. 




PLATE XI. 

The common Grain Weevils and larvae. 



3URTESY OF PROFESSOR S. A. FORBES, ILLINOIS STATE ENTOMOLOGIST. 



i 



CHAPTER XII 



THE MARKETING OF CORN 



1. HOME MARKETS 



With the increase of dairying and stock feeding will come a 
corresponding increase in home consumption of corn. Tenants in 
general do not feed their crops on the farm. Farmers who recognize 
that the fertility of the soil can be maintained by keeping live stock 
and returning the crops to the land in the form of manure, are now 
raising sufficient number of hogs along with a few cattle to consume 
everything which is produced. Large returns in pork and beef usually 
accompany this practice. Furthermore, it has the advantage of being 
permanent and insures crops for the future. 

On the other hand, the commercial market has quoted corn at 
such high figures for the past two years that the cattle feeders who 
depend upon buying their corn have been forced to discontinue opera- 
tions. This has been augmented by a prevailing state of affairs 
whereby the feeder usually has to pay two or three cents more than 
the market price in order to purchase any corn whatever. In dis- 
tricts where cattle and sheep feeding are carried on, the corn grower 
has a better market for his crop than in sections where every bushel 
is shipped out. 

Often where growers live within a few miles of the cattle feeder, 
the corn is hauled directly from the field to the buyers' cribs. A max- 
im of feeders is "buy when it is for sale." Renters who have little 
capital and must pay their rent at the first of the year, usually sell 
during the month of December. The man who can hold his corn, if 
it is of good quality, in general makes more money. *A factor of at 
least i8 per cent shrinkage must be considered. 

The demand for corn in the towns near the grower is only a small 
factor. Some farmers have a regular trade with liverymen, teamsters, 
and feed stores. A good quality is usually desired by these buyers. 
Small mills which grind "chop" for consumption in the city buy a 
limited amount. Cornmeal mills, though located in a corn growing 

*18.2 per cent res.uU of tests at Iowa Experiment Station. 



Local 

demand 

varies 



262 



CORN. 



section, usually buy of the elevators, because the grain is more uni- 
formly graded and cleaned. 

Local markets are quoted in the county papers. Prices are con- 
trolled by the commercial market quotations, by the people and by 
the supply and demand on a particular day or during a week. Dur- 
ing the busy planting or cultivating season, when the farmers cannot 
leave their fields, the local corn markets often rise as much as five; 
cents per bushel. Saturday is usually a day of low prices, because thej 
farmers, during the slack season especially, bring in a load of corn 
when coming after groceries. 

II. COMMERCIAL MARKETING 

Any discussion of the subject of corn would be incomplete which 

Twenty-three . . i i- . -i ,• c . i • r\» 

per cent did not also givc some attention to the distribution of this crop. Ur 

sMpped out . ii-ixT-io /^ 

the total amount of corn produced in the United btates in 1900 

(2,927,416,091 bushels), 23.2 per cent (679,543,770 bushels) was 
shipped out of the county where grown. The counties of Nebraska 
shipped out 49 per cent of their crop, and those of Illinois, 41 per cent 
The amount of corn handled each year by the elevators varies with 
the surplus and the demand for corn as a raw material for factories 
The surprisingly large percentage of the crop of Illinois which is 
shipped out of the counties where grown, indicates the growing de- 
mand of the glucose factories and distilleries. The practice of ship 
ping corn off the farm is to be severely criticised, considered from 

Too little the standpoint of permanent maintenance of agricultural prosperity 
18 feo. on '^ ^ 

the farms xhe following figures show what per cent of the corn crop of the 
United States was shipped out of the county where grown for the 
years 1900 to 1906, inclusive: 

1900 22.7 per cent. 

1901 lo.o " (The very dry year.) 

1902 22.1 ' 

1903 18.7 ' 

1904 22.3 

1905 25.0 

1906 23.2 ' 

As shown by the following figures, the farmers are holding their 
corn crop later in the season than formerly. 

Percentage of Corn in the Hands of Farmers 
March i, 1901 to 1907, inclusive. 

1901 36.9 per cent. 

*I902 29.1 

♦Following the year of drcuth of 190J. 



PRIMARY MARKETS. 



263 



1903 41.6 per cent 

1904 374 

1905 387 

1906 40.9 " 

1907 44-3 

Iowa has always been quite an extensive feeder of her crops. Al- 
though producing more corn than any of the other states, except Largely fed 
Illinois, in 1904, there was only 21 per cent of- it shipped out of the "* ^°^* 
county where grown. In 1905, 24 per cent, and in 1906, 26 per cent , 
of the corn crop was shipped out of the county where grown. 

The farmers of Iowa do not depend entirely upon the fluctuation 
of an unsteady market at the time of harvest. Neither are they at 
they at the mercy or the caprice of the elevator and railway systems. 
That they have adequate cribbing facilities and have sufficient finan- 
cial reserve, is shown by the fact that in 1905, 1906, 1907, the following 
percentages, respectively, of the corn crop were in the hands of the ! 
farmer; 42, 48, 49 on March ist. 

The following statement from S. J. Clausen, who operates an ele- 
vator at Clear Lake, Iowa, expresses the change in Iowa's grain 
movement. 

"We used to have a big rush of grain from harvest until about Farmers 

, . , r t r t • prepared 

the first of the year, but now most of the farmers have granaries to store 

, . 1 • t M tJie crop 

and market their grain at their convenience during the year. 

From correspondence with thirty-five elevator companies in differ- 
ent parts of Iowa, it was found that the greatest movement of corn 
was between January ist and July ist. In years of a well matured 
crop, December was also an active month. 
Classification of Markets. 

The markets which distribute the surplus corn of the United 
States may be classified as (i) primary, (2) terminal, (3) terminal- 
export, and (4) export. 

PRIMARY MARKETS. 

The primary market is represented by the small elevators located 
at railroad stations in the corn-producing districts. There was a total 
of 1777 such elevators in the state of Iowa in 1907. 

Of this number, 220 were operated by Farmers' Cooperative or- 
ganizations and 1577 were independent or line elevators. In July, 
1907, the elevators listed by the Iowa Grain Dealers' Association were 
divided among the different railroad lines as follows: 

Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific 326 

Chicago & Northwestern 314 

Illinois Central I37 



264 



CORN. 




MANAGERS OF ELEVATORS. 265 

Chicago, Great Western 109 

Iowa Central 79 

Minneapolis & St. Louis 65 

Chicago, Burlington & Quincy (East of Des Moines 

River) 41 

Other roads 62 

Secretary Wells, of the Iowa Grain Dealers' Association, gives the 
following figures as the cost of operating a modern local elevator at 
a primary market : 

Interest on cost of plant, valued at $4,000, at 6 per cent $ 240.00 

Interest on working capital, $1,000 at 6 per cent 60.00 

Salary of manager or proprietor 900.00 

Insurance, taxes, postage, stationery 100.00 

Power 100.00 

Extra help 100.00 

Total $1500.00 

This, plus $200 for maintenance of property makes $1,700 per year. 

About 20 per cent of Iowa's grain crop is handled by the ele- 
vators (according to Mr. Well's report), or 113,000,000 bushels — 
65,000 bushels per elevator. At this rate, the running expenses of 
each elevator are equivalent to 2 1-2 cents per bushel of grain handled. 

Qualifications of Manager of Local Elevator, (i) The manager 
should be a good judge of commercial grades. Experience and ob- 
servation will teach him the grading of corn as indicated by its color, 
moisture content, and amount of dirt present. 

(2) An understanding of the meaning of market quotations is ne- 
cessary for an intelligent interpretation of market reports. Familiarity 
with steps in the shipment of consignments will enable him to better 
appreciate the need of lining cars before loading. A knowledge of 
railroad rates and the details of car ordering will often do away with 
shortage of shipping facilities at the time of a good market. 

(3) Some education in regard to bookkeeping and banking will 
stand the manager in hand as his business grows. The margin at 
present on shipments of grain demands close figuring to insure profits. 

(4) The manager should be the progressive man of the locality. 
His opinion upon the market should be respected by the shippers and 
farmers. His interest in the farming community should be substan- 
tial in the way of promoting corn and small grain exhibits, besides in- 
troducing new seed and advocating improved varieties. 



Must be a 
man of 
experience 



Should be 
interested 
in crop 
improvement 



266 



CORN. 



Line Elevator Systems. Almost every town along the lines of 
railroad in the western part of the corn belt has a line elevator. F^or 
example; Nye, Schneider, Fowler Company have built along the Elk- 
horn division of the Chicago & Northwestern Railway in Nebraska, 
while Van Dusen holds the branch lines of the same road in South 
Dakota. The Updyke Grain Company owns a line of elevators paral- 
lel with the Union Pacific. On the B. & ^I. Ferguson buys in the 
principal districts. 

These companies usually build quite large elevators to facilitate ex- 
„ ,. . tensive storing:. Cribs for ear corn are often erected near the eleva- 

Purcnasmg ° 

by elevators j-Qr. During the husking season, farmers within a radius of several 

miles haul direct from the field to these cribs. In the early winter, 

shelled corn taken from open cribs and piles on the ground begins to 

come into the elevator. Corn from good cribs appears a little later, 

depending upon the prices and the financial condition of the grower. 

This corn, if it be dry and of good quality, is held in storage. Then 

the representative of the company, knowing how much corn they have 

^'«eafs°on O" hand throughout the state or states, and knowing, too, how much 

^°%f the corn has cost, goes to the Chicago Board of Trade. Here he 

Trade (jg^ls in futures, making a practice of selling on a high market and 

buying at a price below the original cost of the corn on hand. 

In Iowa, there were in July, 1907, according to the Iowa Grain 
Dealers' Directory, 833 elevators owned by 130 companies who op- 
erated more than one elevator in the state. Twenty-one companies 
operated 10 elevators or more. The following companies were the 
most extensive owners : 



|Number of 

Name. | Main Offi'ce |Elevators. 

Western Elevator Company, | Winona, Minnesota I 65 

Neola Elevator Company, | Chicago, Illinois 57 

Huntting Elevator Company, | McGregor, Iowa 30 

Nye, Schneider, Fowler Company, | Fremont, Nebraska I 31 

Wisconsin Northern Grain Company, | Minneapolis, Minn I 31 

Reliance Elevator Company, ] Minneapol is, Minn f 27 

Independent Elevators. The growth of the independent or private 
elevator company has been marked within the last five years, espec- 
ially in the western corn-growing states. Men of means in the difTer- 

..^ ent localities have entered into this field. Being acquainted with the 
Largely with 0-1 

local capital growers in a given community, lumber merchants and coal dealers 
have erected elevators and begun buying grain. Competitive bidding 
with the older elevator companies places these companies in a favor- 
able light with the farmers. There were in Iowa in July, 1907, 635 



CO-OPERATIVE ELEVATORS. 



267 



elevators operated by companies or individuals who owned but one 
elevator in Iowa. 

Farmers' Co-operative Elevators. A Co-operative Grain Elevator Purpose to 
Society is an organization of farmers whose object is the shipment p'^^ts^^of the 

middleman 




(Courtesy Younglovo Oonstruction Company) 
Fig. 120. 
Small Country Elevator. 



of the grain grown by its members directly to the terminal markets. 
The purpose is to secure for the grain shipped the largest possible 
returns by eliminating the profit of the middleman. Each society is 



268 



CORN. 



Capital 
limited 



Market 

quotations 

received 

by wire 



Bate per 
100 lbs. 



incorporated under the laws of the state and is governed by a Con- 
stitution and By-laws, enforced by the officers of the organization. 

. Iowa's first Farmers' Co-operative Society was founded at Rock- 
well in 1889. From a business of $220,000 in 1895, the money handled 
amounted to $625,000 in 1900. 

The following is taken from the Articles of Incorporation of the 
Farmers' Cooperative Society of Rockwell, Iowa, Section 3 : 

"The capital stock shall be at the beginning of the business of 
this corporation, not less than One Thousand Dollars ($1,000), paid 
in at such beginning, and may be increased from time to time to, and 
not exceeding. Twenty-five Thousand Dollars ($25,000), and all in- 
crease over One Thousand Dollars ($1,000) shall be paid in from 
time to time on the issuance of shares of stock to purchasers becom- 
ing members. The said shares to be Ten Dollars ($10.00) each, and 
no member shall at any time own or have any interest in more than 
ten shares, and no share shall be issued to any one, except upon actual 
payment in cash therefor, or by note of the purchases, with security 
approved by the officers and directors, and such note must be made 
due and payable in time not exceeding sixty days and draw interest 
at 6 per cent. No shareholder shall have more than one vote in con- 
ducting the affairs of this Society." 

Representatives of local cooperative organizations can be as well 
posted each day as managers of the "line elevators." Market quota- 
tions by wire are received from all of the leading distributing and 
storing points. No knowledge, however, of the movement of grain 
enroute to market can be ascertained. A larger cooperation of all the 
societies in a given district is the solution of this difficulty. With the 
increase in the influence of the Interstate Commerce Commission, and 
that of the State Railroad Commissioners, a more amiable relation 
between farmers' organizations and transportation companies will 
exist. This is already manifested by a number of the railroads in 
their kindly attitude. 

Corn Enroute to Market. In estimating the mean freight rate to 
Chicago, from the primary markets, rates from Illinois were taken as 
the lowest and from Nebraska as the highest. This average was about 
16 cents per hundred pounds. A similar rate was charged for grain 
shipped to Minneapolis from local stations in Minnesota, North and 
South Dakota, and Nebraska. To Kansas City from country tribu- 
tary to it, the average rate was 14 cents per hundred. At a certain 
time of the year, and especially in seasons of corn of low keeping 



CAR SHORTAGE. 



269 



quality, a car shortage occurs in the growing districts. In considera- 
tion of this point, the following paragraph is taken from the Ameri- 
can Elevator and Grain Trade of January 15, 1907. 

"The Iowa Railroad Commission recommended in January, 1907, 
that elevators in grain growing communities be of more reasonable should get 
capacity, sufficient to care for the products of the surrounding dis- of the best 

i~> 1 • • • ii-'ii-ii market 

tricts. Such m.crease m storage capacity would, it is believed, solve 
the car shortage problem. But, as George A. Wells truly says: 'There 
is no reason why the farmers shouldn't build bins sufficient to hold 
their grain and ship it when the market is the highest. They can pick 
that time as well as anyone else. Corn left in the field will not grade 
and the farmer suffers the loss. Even if additional elevators were 
provided, the farmers would be compelled to pay high storage charges, 




1, Courtesy Weighing Department of Chicago Board of 

Trade) Fig. 121. 

Car before it has been properly lined for grain. 



270 



CORN. 



Leakage 



which would eat up their profits. But, by building bins and watching 
the market, they would also relieve the car shortage, which comes 
only because every one wants to get his corn to market at once.' " 

How to Prepare Cars for Grain, Cars should be prepared 
for grain in such a way as to prevent, if possible, any leakage in 
transit, and to prevent rain or snow from reaching the grain. 

There are three causes for the leakage of grain in transit, as 
follows : 

(i) Defective car equipment. 

(2) Rough handling of equipment by railroads. 

(3) Carelessness on the part of the loader. 

The first two causes are beyond the control of the individual ship- 
per, but the last named cause can be practically eliminated if the 
proper effort is made by the loader. 

Shortage due to leakage in transit, causes all interested much con- 
cern. Shipper, receiver, line of transportation, and terminal weigh- 
master, all sufifer directly or indirectly. Therefore, all should do their 
part towards eliminating this constant source of contention. 

The points to be inspected in a car, arranged in order of their 
greatest importance, as determined by leakage statistics, are as fol- 
lows : 

(i) The grain doors; 

(2) The sheathings; 

(3) Door posts and end posts; 

(4) End doors and windows ; 

(5) Linings; 

(6) Floors. 

Be sure that your grain doors are strong enough. A safe plan is 
to make them stronger than you deem necessary. They should be 
well braced, and all braces should be nailed to each and every board. 
It is poor economy to scant this bracing. Where a vertical center 
brace is used, put a cleat on the floor at the bottom, if possible. The 
best and safest door of which we know, is made by placing two ordi- 
nary grain doors with the flat sides together. The object in placing 
the flat sides together is to prevent grain from lodging between them. 
Under no circumstances should a door be used which is too short for 
the opening. Spliced grain doors are most unsatisfactory and un- 
certain. 

Patent doors, having effective lugs at the bottom, and other proper 
doors fastenings, should not be. nailed to the door posts. When nailing is 



m 



LINING CARS. 



271 



necessary, never use spikes, as spikes cause the mutilation of the door, 
when opened at the unloading point. 

Single boards should be used for the top of the grain door in order 
that one or more boards may be knocked ofif by the grain inspector 
without loosening others and causing leakage. The jarring and jolt- 
ing of cars in switching will level the grain in them ; therefore, the 
doors and windows should be boarded above the leveling point. 




(Courtesy Weighing Dcparrment rf Chicago Board of Trade.) 
Fig. 122. 
Car after it has been properly lined for grain. 



Next in importance are the sheathings. Both the side and end 
sheathings should be examined after the cars are loaded, and any sheatungg 
that are loose or bulged should be securely nailed. The rocking of 



272 CORN. 

the car in rounding curves will surely spring weak sheathings and 
allow the escape of grain, which the linings will not prevent. Leak- 
age at sheathings is not readily detected unless the cars are in motion. 
Leaks due to defective door and end posts are liable to be serious. 
Therefore, a careful examination of them should be made before 
Examine loading. When there is any evidence of weakness in these posts, the 
TOd'^post^s inside of the car at these points should be lined with burlap or cloth 
in such a manner as to prevent leakage should they give away. 

End doors which extend to the floor are a source of many leaks 
and should therefore receive a careful examination, and if cooperage 
Boardin ^^ ncccssary, it should be on the inside of the car. A grain door set 
end windows q^ end will afford good protection. Always lock or cleat the end 
windows on the inside atid do not neglect to board them high enough. 
In referring to end windows when preparing cars for grain, Mr 
R. C. Richards, Claim Agent for the Chicago & Northwestern Com- 
pany, writes : "When you load cars, fasten the end doors inside with 
a cleat, since it is through these doors that robberies occur. That 
is the reason we want them cleated before loading with grain." 

The lining of cars should also receive careful attention on the part 

of the loader, as grain lodging behind them frequently amounts to 

Lining Several hundred pounds; and where it lodges in pockets is often lost 

to the shipper. A careful cooper will pay particular attention to this 

point. 

In addition to the above, special attention is directed to the floors. 

Floor should more particularly when small grains such as flaxseed, rye and wheat 
be inspected , , , ' 

are to be loaded. 

Aside from repairing large defects in a car to be loaded with bulk 
grain, any shipper can secure the best insurance against leakage at 
the least expense by lining the cars to be loaded as they are frequently 
and most successfully lined for flaxseed. 

The cost of preparing a car in this manner varies from fifteen to 
thirty cents for the material, according to its condition. 

Size of Cars. Box cars for the shipment of grain have capacities 
varying from 30,000 to 100,000 pounds. Their dimensions range from 
27 feet 6 inches in length and 7 feet, 10 1-2 inches in width, to 40 feet 
in length and 8 feet 6 inches in width. The grain line which is placed 
in cars for the purpose of preventing overloading and underloading, 
varies in height in the case of corn from 3 feet to 6 feet 7 inches, 
^of "calTnot It is not expected that corn will weigh out according to the meas- 

urement or grain line in car. According to the Chicago Shippers' 
Manual, corn testing 55 pounds occupies approximately 2,090 cubic 



accurate 

as to 

amount of 

grain 

contained 



CAPACITY OF CARS. 273 

inches per bushel ; settled, approximately 2,020 cubic inches per bush- 
el. Corn testing 54 pounds, 2,130 cubic inches; settled, 2,065 cubic 
inches. A car 33 feet long by 8 1-2 feet wide and filled to a height 
of three feet with shelled corn, would contain 693 bushels. These 
figures are only approximate. The specific gravity of grain is con- 
stantly varying because of moisture, pressure and quality. 




Maxiu 



(Courtesy "Weighing Department Chicago Board of Trade) 

Fig. 123. 
Car door covered with cheese cloth to prevent leakage. 

The rules of the different railroads governing the quantities of 
grain to be loaded into cars of various capacities vary to a limited K 
extent in minor details. The maximum amount of grain allowed to 
be loaded is 10 per cent over the marked capacity of the car, on prac- 
tically all roads. 

The Burlington Railroad makes the following stipulation in re- 
gard to shipping ear corn : 



274 



CORN. 



Amount 
per car 



To be shelled 
in transit 



Poor cars 

at time 

of shortage 



Company 

furnishes 

lumber for 

coopering 



Ear corn will be subject to the following minima, but not to exj 
ceed the marked capacity of the car. 

In cars not over 28 feet in length (inside measurement), 4,000 
pounds less than marked capacity of car, but not less than 30,000 
pounds. 

In cars not over 34 feet in length (inside measurement), 46,000 
pounds. 

In cars not over 36 feet in length (inside measurement), 56,000 
pounds. 

In cars over 36 feet in length (inside measurement), 66,000 pounds 

Corn Shelled in Transit. Shipments of ear corn to be shelled in 
transit must be loaded to full visible capacity, but not to exceed car- 
rying capacity of car. If the weight of the shelled corn from a car 
so loaded is less than the minimum weight on shelled corn for the 
car in which the same is loaded, actual weight of the shelled corn 
may be accepted, if the ear corn is not loaded to visible capacity of 
car, the minimum weight on the out-turned shelled corn will be 30,000 
pounds. 

Agents will carefully examine all shipments of ear corn to see if 
cars are loaded to their full visible capacity, but not above carrying 
capacity of car, and make notation on way-bills, whether or not cars 
are so loaded. 

Shortages and claims as viewed by the Claim Agent of a large 
western railroad. 

"It has been my observation that most of the losses of grain are 
due to carelessness and insufficient coopering of cars by the shipper. 
When grain begins to move, a shortage of equipment usually follows. 
The roads are therefore obliged to furnish any kind of a car that will 
pass a mechanical inspection. The result is that old cars with bad 
doors, sides and floors are set in for the elevators, and it requires 
something more than ordinary coopering to make these cars safe 
against leakage. The shippers apparently do not realize this. They 
feel that if they put in the grain doors they are doing everything nec- 
essary. The fact of the matter is that a great deal of the leakage 
is around the center pins and over the draft rigging of the cars, and 
particular attention should be given to coopering such portions of 
the car. The railroad companies furnish grain doors and grain door 
lumber in abundance, and the shipper should be willing to place his 
labor in recoopering the car against the company's expense in fur- 
nishing the material. 



MAKING CLAIMS. 



275 



Many 



"A great many of the leakages are caused by the weight of the 
grain bulging the grain doors out. These are instances where the 
shipper is anxious to get into the car every pound of grain he possibly 
can — another result of the scarcity of equipment. In such instances 
the shipper should take into consideration the extraordinary weight 
of the grain and should use enough lumber at the doors to prevent 
the grain doors bulging or breaking. 

"A great many of the claims for grain shortages do not represent 
shortages at all, but merely errors in weight, which are brought about 
by lack of system or carelessness on the part of the shipper. Possi- 
bly he loads his car on a team track, or he may be loading two or Portages 
more cars of different grades ; he will frequently get a wagon load errors in 
of one grade into the wrong car, and, as a consequence, one of the 
cars will check short — say, 2,000 pounds, while the other car will 
over-weigh 2,000 pounds. He puts in a claim for the shortage, but 
the railroad company never hears of the overage. It would be sur- 
prising to know how many cases of this kind the railroad companies 
actually bring to light, and it would be still more surprising if we 
could find out how many cases we never succeed in bringing to light." 

Suggestions As To Making Claims. In presenting claims for 
the loss of grain in transit, claimants who desire prompt attention 
should furnish the railroad companies against whom the claim is 
made, with the following documents and information : 

First, with copy of bill of lading. 

Second, with an affidavit made by the person who loaded the 
grain, showing the amount, date, place and number of the car into 
which the grain was loaded ; how it was weighed and the condition 
of the car when loaded. 

Third, the account of sales for the grain when it reached desti- 
nation. 

Fourth, certificate of the weighmaster at destination. If he is not 
the official Board of Trade Weighmaster, an affidavit from the person 
who unloaded the grain, showing when and where it was unloaded, 
seals of the car, condition of the car, and the number of pounds or 
bushels unloaded. 

Fifth, a complete record of any investigations which have been 
made prior to making claim for loss, with reference to the loading, un- 
loading and weighing of the grain. 

Sixth, a statement of the number of bushels lost and value of same. 



276 



CORN. 



Seventh, if the claims cover damage to grain from leaky roof or 
other causes, they should be accompanied with all information bear- 
ing on the subject. I 

"The mere statement of 'leaky roof by some one at a destination 

Much is not sufficient, by any means," writes Mr. A. Kirkland, Claim Agent 

due to for the Illinois Central Railroad. "We should have more than this, 
Isick or 
Information and furthermore, inspectors or others should call the attention of the 

railroad company at destination to the discovery of a leaky roof, so 

that proper investigation may be made by the railroad company. The 

great trouble and reason for delay in the adjustment of some claims 

is want of information." 

Mr. R. C. Richards, Claim Agent for the Chicago & Northwestern 
Railway Company, writing in the same vein, states that "if, in the 
presentation of claims, the claimants would furnish complete infor- 
mation, their losses could be promptly investigated and adjusted." 




(Courtesy Weighing Dept. Chicago Board of Trade) 

Fig. 124(a). 

(a). Stopping leakage on the side of grain car. 



TERMINAL MARKETS. 

Terminal markets are points of inspection, exchange, specu- 
lation, storage, and distribution. Such markets are necessary 
to facilitate the handling of large quantities of grain. Their 
growth has been due not only to increased production, but to the 
development of complexity in systems of distribution. 



DESIGN OF ELEVATOR. 



277 







./3iO- 



f-^-o"-^ f-o' 

(Courtesy Younglove Corstruction Company') 

Fig. 124. 
Design of right elevation of small country elevator. Follow the course of the grain from 
its delivery from the wagon until loaded into the car. 



278 CORN. 

RECEIPTS OF CORN AT THE PRINCIPAL MARKETS DURING 1907. 



Markets 


Bushels 


Percent of Total 

Receipts 

Except Flax 


Chicago 


125,159,932 

9,190,142 

5,966,357 

4,594,342 

149,365 

6,674,800 

14,787,900 

4,050,000 

10,406,982 

6,635,435 

6,151,560 

18,493,200 

17,488,600 

34,704,720 

7,438,400 

271,891,735 


47.2 


Cincinnati 


47 6 


Cleveland 


39 7 


Detroit 


47 5 


Duluth 


2 


Indianapolis 


53 4 


Kansas City 


25.1 


Little Rock 


73 4 


Louisville 


52 9 


Milwaukee 


14 3 


Minneapolis 


4 6 


Omaha 


43 2 


Peoria 


53 6 




40 6 


Toledo 


42 5 


Total 









The following table shows the comparative receipts and shipments, 
in bushels, for a period of 24 hours, prior to Saturday, July 18, 1908, 
at the principal terminal and terminal export markets : 



TERMINAL MARKETS. 



Markets 

Chicago 

Milwaukee 

Minneapolis , 

Duluth 

St. Louis 

Toledo 

Detroit 

Kansas City 

Peoria 



Receipts. 



Shipments. 



159,088 
4,000 
4,160 

38,500 

8,800 

1,264 

11,000 

67,100 



135,908 
3,000 
4,200 

37,450 
9,130 

15,552 
8,800 

25,300 



TERMINAL-EXPORT MARKETS. 



Markets. 


Receipts. 


Shipments. 


New York 

Boston 

Philadelphia 


10,750 

'. 2,000 
5,219 
4,500 


1,360 


Baltimore 

New Orleans 


60 



CORN VALUES. 279 

Chicago As a Terminal Market. Receipts of Corn at Chicago dur- 
ing each of the Twelve Months, 1906, 1907, in bushels. 

January 8,735,964 1 1,488,023 

February 7,940,400 13,158,362 

March 6,031,912 11,324,734 

April 4,146,244 7,979,002 

May 7,020,249 6,393,069 

June 14,764,109 19,398,650 

July 8,659,513 8,569,542 

August 4,676,606 5,631,622 

September 13,029,866 14,619,305 

October 9,065,016 13,329,138 

November 6,437,419 4.137753 

December 8,389,265 9,130,732 

Total .....98,896,563 125,159,932 

Corn Values. The following table exhibits the average highest 
and lowest prices for No. 2 corn (cash) at Chicago, during each 
month of the year. The average in cents per bushel is taken from 
1873 to 1906, inclusive. 

Lowest Price Highest Price 

January 38.6 41.9 

February 39.5 42.9 

March 40-i 44-5 

April 414 47-4 

May 40.6 47-5 

June 42.5 47-6 

July 43-1 490 

August 44-0 47-7 

September 42.8 50.0 

October 42.0 53-4 

November . 41 -4 48-8 

December 40.4 46.2 

The following prices in Chicago for the months of 1907 show the 
general trend of corn values irt cents per bushel : 

Lowest Price Highest Price 

January 39^ 43 >2 

February 43 44/4 

March 43 45 

April 44^ 50^ 

May -Ag'A 5^ 



280 CORN. 

June 51^ 54>4 

July 52 55^ 

August 54 6iy2 

September 60^ 63^ 

October 54^ 66^ 

November 55>4 6oJ^ 

December 57>4 615/2 

Omaha As a Terminal Market. 

RECEIPTS AND SHIPMENTS OF CORN AT OMAHA. 



I 





Years. 


Receipts. 


Shipments. 


1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 


8,833,735 bushels 
19,771,300 
20,728,400 
18,493,200 


7,695,050 bushels 
20,841,000 
19.522,400 
19,026,000 



Beginning business as a terminal market in 1904 the volume of 
corn trade has increased rapidly at Omaha. 

Disposition of Shipments from Omaha Market, 1907. 

Destination Corn 

Chicago and Milwaukee 2,183,000 bushels 

St. Louis 2,726,000 

Mississippi River Points 951,000 

Minneapolis and St. Paul 29,000 

Illinois 1,987,000 

Wisconsin 233,000 

Middle States 1,521,000 

Seaboard 1,670,000 

Southeast and Mississippi Valley 3,385,000 

Export via Atlantic 1,630,000 

Export via Gulf 421,000 

Interior Points 2,290,000 



Total 19,026,000 

A study of the above table shows that the large per cent of Omaha 
shipments are destined southward. 

Inspection of Corn at the Terminal Markets. Carloads of corn ar- 
riving at the terminal markets are inspected and sampled by officials 
as follows : Chicago, by the Illinois State Board of Railroad and Ware- 
house Commissioners ; Duluth, by the Minnesota State Board of Rail- 
road and Warehouse Commissioners ; at Milwaukee, the Chamber of 
Commerce appoints the chief inspector, who in turn selects his as- 
sistants. 



STEPS IN INSPECTION. 



281 



The Steps in the Inspection. *When a carload of grain reaches 
the terminal yards of any railroad, it is carded by the railroad com- 
pany "Grain for Inspection" and switched to tracks in the yard des- 
ignated as grain tracks. 

The inspector, with from one to three helpers, arrives at the rail- 
road freight yards and the designated grain tracks about seven o'- 
clock in the morning and begins the work of inspection. The helper 
first opens the door of the car and tacks on it what is called an "In- 
spector's Ticket." (See Figures 331 and 332). This ticket is put on 
the car for the inspector to make his record on when he inspects 
the car. This record consists of the car number, the initials, kind of 
grain and the grade given it. The inspector's ticket remains on the 
car until it is unloaded and is the authority of the elevator superin- 
tendent for unloading the car. 




By whom 
inspected 



Fig. 330. 
INSPECTORS LEAVING FOR FREIGHT YARDS. 



The inspector, with the assistance of another helper, follows and 
inspects the car, carefully sampling each and every part of the car fg^J^P^^^^itj 
with a "tryer." (A "tryer" is a hollow steel pipe or tube about two the "tryer.' 
inches in diameter and four feet long, with a space four inches long 

♦Statement of W. S. Cowen, Chief Inspector of Grain, Chicago. 



282 



CORN. 




Fig. 331. 

BREAKING THE SEAL. 

The grain inspector is seen with chondrometer in hand; by his side stands his helper 
■with ladder and crowbar ready to open the door and remove boards if necessary, that the 
sampler (standing just behird him) may enter. Note the instrument on his shoulder used 
for taking the samples. This is called a "tryer." The fift'i party standing by the cart 
collects the samples which are taken to the Board of Trade Building. 



Detailed 

record 

is kept 



and an inch and one-half wide, the full length of the tryer, with a 
closed space between these open spaces of two and three-quarter 
inches. (See figure 332.) This tube is fitted with a wooden plunger 
that fits closely inside the tube. This plunger closes the tube up tightly 
from top to bottom. The tryer is pushed down to the bottom of 
the car and plunger taken out when the tube readily fills , covering 
practically all the grain from the bottom to the top of the load, to 
see that the grain is loaded evenly. After a thorough sampling of the 
car, he places the grade upon the ticket above referred to. The num- 
ber and initials of the car, the kind of grain and the grade given it, 
and his remarks for grading the grain a certain grade, is reported in 
a book known as a "Tract Book," which he carries with him. This 
process applies to every car inspected. (See Fig. 334.) 

After the inspector's work is done for the day, he makes out a 
report giving the car numbers, the initials, kind of grain, and grade, 
and remarks made on each kind of grain (these remarks being the 
reason given for inspecting grain a certain grade), and sends this 



RECEIVERS' AGENT. 



283 



report to the chief inspector's office. This report is then copied into 
the record books kept in the office of the Chief Inspector. These be- 
come the official records of the Department of Grain Inspection. 

There is another man who accompanies the inspector, who is called 
the "Receiver's Agent." This man is employed by the members of 
the Chicago Board of Trade and has nothing whatever to do with 
this department. He takes a sample of the grain contained in the car 
inspected and also gets the grade as placed thereon by the inspector. 
(See figure 335). He also receives from the railroad a notice to the 




Eeceiver's 
agent 



Figure 332. 
THE INSPECTOR'S TAG IS NOW PUT ON THE CAR. 



consignee of the arrival of the car, and carries that notice with the 
sample and the grade given the grain by the inspector and delivers it 
on the Board of Trade to the consignee. On each railroad carrying 
grain into Chicago, there is a Receiver's Agent doing the work above 
referred to. 

After the Receiver's Agent delivers the samples to the consignee, 
if the shipper feels that he has not received a fair grade on his grain, 
he notifies the Department of Grain Inspection and a supervising in- t" ^^^ 
spector is sent to the car to reinspect the grain therein ; if he find that "-^^^p®*^* 
the inspector has made no error in the inspection, he sustains the orig- 



284 



CORN. 



Securing 
samples 



inal inspection. If he find an error, he changes the grade to what, 
in his judgment, he believes it to be, and the same is at once re- 
ported to the consignee. Should the consignee still be dissatisfied, 
under the rules governing this department he has a right to appeal 
to what is known as the "Appeals Committee," or in other words, a 
court of last resort in the Inspection Department. Their decision is' 
final and cannot be appealed from. 

Delivery of Samples. The Receiver's Agent places the samples 
of corn as graded by the inspector in a pushcart. The paper or cloth 
bags, usually the former, are labeled with the name of the firm to 
whom the car is consigned, number of the car, and the grade of the 
corn. For example, "Rumsey & Company, 43,667, No. 3 Yellow." 




Fig. 333. 
THE EXTRA BOARDS ARE BEING REMOVED. 



When all the cars are inspected the bags are transferred to the 
Taken to morning express train which runs into the city from the terminal 

the Board . i t-n ■ i i it-.-!, , , • 

of Trade gram yards. Durmg the run down town the Receiver s Agent and his 

Bnilding , , • , i , • . , , , ^ 

helpers are arranging the bags in groups, putting all those of one com- 
pany together. When the train reaches the city station, a special 
wagon transfers the samples to the Board of Trade Building. Busi- 
ness begins promptly at 11 o'clock A. M. and before that time the 



ON THE CASH FLOOR. 



285 



samples must be delivered to the table belonging to each firm repre- 
sented in the morning's receipts. The tables are high set and heavily 
made. Each commission firm rents a table or part of one, usually a 
quarter or half, upon which to do business. 

On the Cash Floor. The buyers for the eastern trade, exporters, 
glucose and distillery representatives, all assemble at ii A. M. The 
examining of the samples and buying on this market is strictly cash. 




Fig. 334. 

THE CAR OF GRAIN IS INSPECTED. 

Samples being taken near both ends of the car as 
getting the weight per bushel. A detailed record is being 
well as opposite the door. The inspector will be seen 
made in the "'Track Book" of each car of grain. The 
other two of this pjtrty (shown in Fig. 333) have gone 
to prepare the next car for the inspector. 

lEach commission man tries to interest as many buyers as possible. ^^^^^^ 

He shows the samples to those who will be most interested in the «|ed on 

grade of corn which he has on hand that particular morning. He does market 
not try to influence the exporter to buy immature corn full of mois- 



286 CORN 

ture, nor will he try to sell it to a warehouse man who intends stor- 
ing it for any length of time. 

Trading ceases usually by 1 130 and the clerks in the Commission 
the day's Firm's office figure up the returns of each car of corn. Mr. A., who 

business & x . ^ ' 

lives at a certain town in northern Iowa, receives a letter which gives 
the number of bushels in the car which he shipped; the grade, the 



Closing 




Fig. 335. 

A SAMPLE OF GRAIN IS COLLECTED. 

The car number and the grade is marked on the sjck. 
These are to be representative samples. They are taken 
to the Board of Trade Building and used in selling the 
grain on the cash market, 

price per bushel, freight charges, dockage or leakage, if any, cost of 
inspection, commission, and a draft for the net proceeds of the sale. 

Commercial Grades of Corn. The following grades are recognized 
and described by the Chicago Board of Trade: 



GRADES OF CORN. 



287 



No. I. Yellow corn shall be yellow, sound, dry, plump, and 
well cleaned. 

No. 2 Yellow corn shall be 90 per cent yellow, dry, reason- 
ably clean, but not plump enough for No. i. 

No. 3. Yellow corn shall be 90 per cent yellow, reasonably 
dry and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. 

No. 4. Yellow corn shall be 90 per cent yellow, badly dam- 
aged, damp, musty or very dirty. 



Yellow 
com 




Fig. 336. 



AFTER THE CAR OF GRAIN HAS BEEN INSPECTED 
IT IS AGAIN SEALED. 

No. I. White corn shall be white, sound, dry, plump, and well 
cleaned. ToT 

No. 2. White corn shall be 95 per cent white, dry, reasonably 
clean, but not plump enough for No. i. 

No. 3. White corn shall be 95 per cent white, reasonably dry 
and reasonably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. 



288 



CORN. 



Mixed 
coru 



No. 4. White corn shall be 95 per cent white, badly damaged, 
damp, musty or very dirty. 

No. I. Corn shall be mixed corn of choice quality, sound, dry 
and well cleaned. 

No. 2. Corn shall be mixed corn, dry and reasonably clean, 
but not good enough for No. i. 

No. 3. Corn shall be mixed corn, reasonably dry and reason- 
ably clean, but not sufficiently sound for No. 2. 

No. 4. Corn shall be mixed corn that is badly damaged, damp, 
musty, or very dirty. 




No. 2 

contract 
grade 



Fig. 337. 
REINSPECTING GRAIN AT THE GRAIN INSPECTOR'S OFFICE.* 

Corn that is wet or in heating condition shall not be graded. 

The following extract from an address of Secretary Wells** of the 
Iowa Grain Dealers' Association, before the members in December, 
1904, shows many practical points in the grain trade : 

"There are market conditions that afTect the relative values of the 
different grades because of speculation and also the question of facil- 
ities for handling, storing and transportation. When a corner is being 
manipulated by speculation there is always a stronger demand for 

*According to a new ruling the samples of grain are secured from the cars and 
brought into the Board of Trade Building where they are inspected. 
**Now secretary of the Western Grain Dealers' Association. 



MIXING GRAIN. 



289 



the contract grade, which is No. 2 corn, than for the inferior grades, 
and the difference, which under normal conditions may be one or two 
cents per bushel and may widen to 25 cents or even more. 

"To illustrate this, on July 11, 1902, during the Harris-Gates corner, 
No. 2 or contract grade corn sold at 88 cents in store at Chicago, while 
No. 3 corn sold at 73^ cents, a difference of 14I/2 cents per bushel, 
while the difference based on feeding and manufacturing or normal 
market values, would perhaps not have exceeded 2 cents. 

"When markets are glutted and supply exceeds the demand, the 
corn must necessarily go into store and the buyer of such corn will 
certainly select only the corn that is thoroughly dry and sound, while 
the lower grades would be neglected. Thus, under such circumstances, 
the difference in value between grades would be more than if normal 
conditions prevailed. However, with modern machinery for drying 
corn, this is not so likely to occur, and will depend upon the facilities 
for handling of grades in the particular market in which the corn is 
located, and the general outlets. Low grade corn that is liable to get 
out of condition and is located in a market where there is no cleaning 
house or drying facilities, would suffer a greater discount than if 
located in a market with larger facilities and likewise larger demand. 

"The business of mixing grain is an important element in the term- 
inal grain trade. Large elevator plants are devoted to that branch 
of the business, and it will be readily understood that for this purpose 
there is always a varying demand for the different grades that affect 
comparative values as between grades. Thus briefly stated, specula- 
tion, congestion at terminals, and mixing, affect values regardless of 
the intrinsic worth of the grain. It is along these lines that the grain 
business assumes the character of a profession, and of them the suc- 
cessful grain merchant must have some knowledge; otherwise his 
business is merely that of a freight handler at a railroad station and 
his income scarcely more than common wages. I know of an 8,000- 
bushel lot of average corn that was shelled and run through the drier 
in November, and the shrinkage in weight amounted to a cost of 5 
cents per bushel, to say nothing of the labor. 

"Volume is an important element in the grain business, and a par- 
ticular grade or quality of grain must be offered in a volume sufficient 
to make the handling of it in its identity consistent and practical before 
it will be thus recognized by the trade. 

"No. 2 corn is unknown to the grain trade in Iowa today, simply 
because of that reason; while if possibly 25 per cent instead of less 
than 9 per cent of the corn of Iowa were No. 2, the grain trade would 



Mixing 
grain 



No. 2 corn 
scarce 



Hate 



290 CORN. 

be forced to recognize that grade and the farmer would receive an 
additional one-half to one cent per bushel, and at times more." 

Cost of Inspection. The chief inspector of grains at Chicago is 
authorized to collect on all grain inspected, the following: 

For In Inspection — 

35 cents per carload ; lo cents per wagon or cartload ; 40 cents 
per 1,000 bushels from canal boats, ^ of a cent per bushel from 
bags. 

For Out Inspection — 

50 cents per 1,000 bushels to vessels and cars; 50 cents per 

carload to cars for all special inspection ; 50 cents per carload 

to teams or 10 cents per wagonload to teams. 

Brokerage by Grade. The following rates of brokerage being just 

and reasonable, are hereby established as the minimum charge which 

shall be made by members of this Association for the transaction of 

the business specified in this section. 

For the purchase or for the sale, by grade alone, of wheat, corn 
or oats, to be delivered in store in regular houses, either for im- 
mediate or for future delivery, ten cents per 1,000 bushels; for the 
purchase, or for the sale, by grade alone, either for immediate or for 
future delivery, or to arrive, or in car load lots in any position, 50 
cents. 

Brokerage by Sample and C. I. F. The following rates of broker- 
age, being just and reasonable, are hereby established as the mini- 
mum charge which shall be made by members of this Association 
for the transaction of the business specified in this section. 

For the purchase or for the sale, by sample, or by grade and sample 
combined, for immediate or future delivery, or to arrive or in car load 
lots in any position : 

On corn or oats per car $ .50 

On ear corn per car 1.50 

For the purchase or for the sale of all kinds of grain C. I. F. (cost, 
insurance, freight), for shipment by water or rail, to or from Chicago 
Rate or other points, ^ cent per bushel in lots of 5,000 bushels or more, 
34 cent per bushel in lots of less than 5,000 bushels. 

Commissions for Buying or Selling or for Bu3dng and Selling. 

The following rates of commission, being just and reasonable, are 
hereby established as the minimum charge that shall be made by mem- 
bers of this Association for the transaction of the business specified 
in this section. 



COMMISSION CHARGES. 



291 



For the purchase or for the sale, or for the purchase and sale, by 
grade alone, of wheat, corn or oats to be delivered in store either for 
immediate or for future delivery, ^ cent per bushel. 

Commissions, Buying or Selling and Accounting. The following 
rates or commission, being just and reasonable, are hereby estab- 
lished as the minimum charge that shall be made by members of this 
Association for the transaction of the business specified in this section. 

For receiving and selling or for buying, either to be loaded or to 
be unloaded or to be forwarded, by grade or sample, or both, either 
for immediate or for future delivery, or to arrive, or in carload lots 
in any position; on corn or oats ^ cent per bushel; on ear corn, i 
cent per bushel. 

It is hereby provided that upon transactions specified in the fore- 
going paragraphs of this section which are made for the account of 
members of this Association, or for firms one at least of whose gen- 
eral partners is a member of this Association, or for corporations 
entitled under Section 8 of this rule to members' rates, one-half of 
the foregoing rates shall be the minimum rates charged. 

Commissions for Buying or Selling Vessel Lots — The following 
rates of commission, being just and reasonable, are hereby estab- 
lished for receiving and selling or for buying and shipping the follow- 
ing described property by vessels : 

On corn or oats, % cent per bushel. 

Additional Charges. In addition to all the rates of commission 
prescribed by this rule, there shall be charged all legitimate expenses 
incurred in handling and caring for the property involved, including 
storage, insurance, inspection, weighing. Cost of sampling shall not 
be considered a charge against the property. 

Comparative Receipts of Different Grades. 

Number of Cars of Each Class and Grade of Corn Received in Chicago. 

Yellow 1906 1907 

No. I Z7 cars i cars 

No. 2 16,596 " 

16,259 " 
4.780 " 

37,672 " 
1906 



4,133 cars 

3,585 " 

800 " 

8,518 " 



Commis- 
sion 14 
cent per 
bushel 



No. 


3 


No. 


4 




Total 


White 


No. 


I 


No. 


2 


No. 


3 


No. 


4 



12,008 
23,868 
10,190 




46,067 
1907 


<< 


3,199 

7.535 
2,731 


cars 
<( 



On corn or 
On corn 
oats 1/4 
cent per 
bushel 



Total 



13.465 



292 



CORN. 



Mixed 



No. 


I 


No. 


2 


No. 


3 


No. 


4 




Total 


No 


Grade 



1906 

4 cars 
7,161 " 

19.159 " 
11,918 " 



1907 

3.915 
22,330 

10,963 



car: 



38,242 " 37.208 

3.549 " 6,787 

In studying the receipts of these different grades by months, it 
is found that the largest shipments of No. 2 of all classes were made 
during May, June, July, August, September, and October. There 
was no No. i corn received except during these months. Almost all of 
the No. 4 and no grade corn arrived during November and in Decem- 
ber, January, February, and March. 

Testing Corn for Moisture.* "Expert John D. Shanahan 
has been making moisture tests on corn throughout the west during 
the past thirty days and has awakened a lively interest in the trade 
in that important problem, hitherto a mere matter of guesswork with 
most dealers, to whom, indeed, the subject had little more than an 
academic interest. Wichita, St. Louis, Kansas City, Omaha, St. 
Joseph, Des Moines, Decatur, Peoria and other places have been given 
the benefit of the tests with good results. 

"The amounts of moisture found in corn at these various places did 
not materially vary, but everywhere there was more moisture than 
corn should contain that is expected to grade well or to be sent to 
store. At Wichita, the results of the tests were as follows, the figures 
indicating the percentage of moisture found : 

N. E. G. Corn 20.7 Percent 

No. 3, Yellow Corn 19.0 " 

N. E. G. White 20.2 

No. 3, White Corn 17.1 

No. 4, White Corn 21.0 " 

No. 4, Yellow Corn 19.8 

At St. Louis, the tests showed the following percentages : 

No. 4, Mixed Corn 18.9 to 19.9 Percent 

No. 4, White 19.8 

No. 2, Yellow 14.7 " 

No. 2 and No. 3, White 17.5 " 

It is said that the immediate result of Mr. Shanahan's visit to St. 
Louis will be the establishing of a testing apparatus in the Grain In- 
spector's office. 



♦American Elevator and Grain Trade, Febriiaa-y 15, 1907. 



GRAIN STORAGE. 



293 



At St. Joseph, the tests showed the following percentages : 

No Grade Corn 21.0 to 21.5 Percent 

No. 4 Corn 18.6 ' 

No. 3, White 16.5 

No. 3, Mixed 17.8 to 17.6 

" 'Different grain men have used different methods of testing corn 
and grading it,' said one St. Joseph inspector of the tests. 'We judge 
by the feel, by the appearance, by the way a small quantity runs 
through the hand, in all sorts of ways, but a test like this would be 
very valuable to us.' 

" 'I wish that I had an apparatus like this in Kansas City a few 
years ago,' said John Winn, now State Grain Inspector in St. Joseph. 
'I'^or instance, an elevator man would put 200,000 bushels of corn into 
his elevator, but it might shrink 30,000 bushels before he took it out 
again. It sold, though, as 200,000 bushels. I experimented by taking 
a quantity of grain and drying it for a month in my office, and after I 
had made several experiments and struck off an average, I showed 
the grain men how I had discovered that a large percentage was lost 
by shrinkage. After that, they were compelled to bring in receipts for 
certain percentages of their grain, and we cancelled them, thus main- 
taining a more accurate record of the grain in elevators and protecting 
the buyers.' " 

Weighing Charges at Chicago: 

Grain by cargo from elevator to vessels per M $ .12 

Grain by cargo from vessels to elevator per M 12 

Grain from canal boats, per boat load i.oo 

Grain in bulk, at regular transfer stations, per 

car load 5° 

Grain Storage. In order that the terminal markets may handle 
and distribute promptly and economically the enormous quantities of 
corn which they receive, great warehouses are built for storing millions 
of bushels of grain. Chicago, the great distributing center for the 
Central States, has storage capacities for 60,000,000 bushels of grain, 
about equally divided between the "regular" and "irregular" ware- 
houses. The "regular" warehouses are licensed by the Chicago Board 
of Trade, and the grain handled by them is subject to inspection by 
the State Grain Inspection Department. All grains handled by them 
are represented by negotiable warehouse certificates which form a 
collateral upon which most banks Avill give loans at low rates of in- 
terest. The "irregular" warehouses are not operated under the rules 
of the Board of Trade, but are subject to inspection by the State Grain 
Inspection Department. 



Methods 
of 

judging 
moisture 



294 



CORN. 




(Courtesy Weighing Departmert, Chicago Board of Trade) 

Fig. 125. 
MODERN TERMINAL ELEVATOR. 



HEATING OF GRAIN, 



295 



Grain storage has not expanded with the increased production. 
The total storage capacity of the fourteen principal markets is 226,- 
000,000 bushels. Of this 181,000,000 is old wooden style construction te^Sspected 
with high rates of interest, the remaining 45,000,000 being of steel and ^^^""^^ ^*°'^®' 
iron. Seaboard capacities are very limited and decreasing. New York 
has decreased 16,250,000 bushels in the last five years. Chicago in 
creased 2,000,000; Minneapolis, 4,000,000 bushels. 

Regular Warehouses. 

The following warehouses were declared regular warehouses for 
the storage of grain and flax seed under the rules of the Board of Trade 
of the City of Chicago and the regulations and requirements of its 
Board of Directors, until the first day of July, 1908: 



Name of Warehouse. 



Operated by. 



Capacity Bu. 



Armour Elevator, A. B. and B. Annex 
Armour Elevator, C, 
Calumet Elevator, C, 
Central Elevator, A., 
Chicago & St. Louis Elevator & Annex 
Peavy Elevator, B., 
Rock Island, A., 
Rock Island, B., 

South Chicag Elevator C. and Annex 
Union Elevator and Annex. 
National Elevator, 
Santa Fe Elevator Annex, 
Grain Traders' Elevator Company's 
Elevator 



Armour Elevator Company! 
Armour Elevator Company! 
Calumet Elevator Companyl 
Central Elevator Company 



Keith Elevator Company I 
Peavy Grain Company 
J. Rosenbaum 
J. Rosenbaum | 

South Chicago Ele. Coi. | 
Armour Elevator Company] 
Central Elevator | 

Santa Fe Elevator Company] 
Grain Traders' Elevattor | 
Company 



5,000,000 
1,000,000 
1,500,000 
900,000 
2,000,000 
1,550.000 
1,250,000 
1,800,000 
3;,000,000 
2,000,000 
1,000,000 
1,000,000 

1,500,000 



Total 22,500,000 



Besides these, there are 66 smaller elevators in Chicago with an 
aggregate of 36,720,000 bushels of grain. 

Rates in Chicago for 1908. On all grain and flax seed received in 
bulk and inspected in good condition, ^ cent per bushel is charged 
for the first 10 days or part thereof, and 1-40 cent per bushel per day 
for each additional day thereafter so long as it remains in good con- 
dition, except in case of the "Santa Fe Elevator Annex," which charges 
^ cent per bushel for the first 10 days or part thereof. On grain 
damp or liable to early damage as indicated by its inspection when re- 
ceived, 2 cents per bushel for the first 10 days or part thereof and 
3^ cent per bushel for each additional 5 days or part thereof. No 
grain will be received in store until it has been inspected and graded 
by authorized inspectors. 

Heating of Grain in Store. The duties of an elevator superin- 
tendent extend beyond the receipt, storage, and final transmission of a 
certain amount of grain. In order to be able to keep the grain received 



296 



CORN. 



Chemical 

changes 

generate 

heat 



Decided 
loss of 
starch 



in good condition during storage, and to be able further to send it out 
in even better condition, if possible, he should recognize as the grain 
comes in just what kind of treatment it will require. In locating heated 
grains, a "tryer" is used or the bin is "drawn." Usually large accumu- 
lations of dust should be watched for closely. In moving or changing 
grain in bins, the weather should preferably be dry and cool. Warm, 
moist air, when allowed to come in contact with moving grain, may 
spoil it even if previously dry. 

Corn which dried on the cob in the crib on the farm or at the local 
elevator, shows little tendency to heat, except during the germinating 
time in June, when care should be taken to withhold moisture from 
it. "Winter shelled" corn keeps as long as cold weather lasts, but 
when spring opens up it should be sent to the consumer at once, as 
it is almost certain to heat. 

Grain in a heated condition loses rapidly in weight. The Shippers' 
Manual of the Chicago Board of Trade for 1907 reports a single car- 
load of hot corn shrinking 3,600 pounds. The Chicago Board of Trade 
Weighing Department has frequently weighed cars of hot corn on 
railroad track scales, day after day, the loss of weight being from 50 
to 100 pounds per day per carload. 

Professor L. G. Michael, Chemist of the Iowa Agricultural Experi- 
ment Station, says that "the heating occurs when grain originally in 
a moist condition is put in bulk, thereby preventing it from drying 
out and consequently subjecting it to attacks of fermentative bac- 
teria, or cells similar to yeast cells. All chemical changes of this kind 
generate heat which, in time, will raise the temperature to such a 
height that oxidation by the air sets in. The oxidation may be so 
rapid as to cause spontaneous combustion. The heating is due almost 
entirely to fermentation which attacks the starch, changing it first 
to alcohol and later to acetic acid. If heating is continued for any 
length of time a decided loss of starchy matter results from the con- 
version of the starch to alcohol with, of course, more or less impair- 
ment of the unconverted starch. The matter of damage through 
heating is one of degree, from almost no harm, through slight rises 
in temperature, to almost complete ruin when fermentative changes 
are allowed to reach any advanced stage." 

Uniform Grades. The description of the classes and grades de- 
scribed by the inspection departments of the different Chambers of 
Commerce and of the several State Railroad and Warehouse Commis- 
sions are wordy and indefinite. According to John F. Courier, Secretary 
of the Grain Dealers' National Association, who was a member of the 



FEDERAL INSPECTION. 



297 



uniform Grade Congress which met in the directors' rooms of the 
Chicago Board of Trade, December ii, 12, 13, 1906, the word "reason- 
ably" appeared 96 times in the stock heading of 338 titles to grades of Grade 
grain, A close study of the grades as described by the various inspec- 
tion boards reveals such words as "suitable," "fair," "inferior," 
"greater," "limited," "some," "enough" and "moderate." In them- 
selves they mean nothing, and to different inspectors they are in- 
terpreted in varying proportions. The Uniform Grade Congress set 
forth grades which are described and limited on the percentage basis. 
Instead of stating that No. 3 corn shall be reasonably free from dirt 
and foreign matter, the actual percentage is ascertained. 

P"' The rules of the Uniform Grade Congress fix the following maxi- 
mum limits for all inspections and gradings of corn : 



Per cent of Moisture Per cent Damaged 


Per cent Dirt 

and Broken 

Grain 


Grade November-March April-October 
No. 1 13 12 
No. 2 15 14 
No. 3 17 16 
No. 4 20 20 


1 

3 

5 

10 



2 

3 
5 



►^■<>'^*o^o.^'o^^^o ^ro:o:<» 





h 

'6 ^ 
y V 

?^ 



pa^vKV (Jrain (>»ii\\ny 



An 8G:a) 



.^^ ' A/<-^,^^./// /^..t 5000 ^,^, .^.^i 



& 4. 



„,y///,f i//H/:?Kf/-t <//yf/.i ttrff/f^ <r)K///" 






'ihm/ ttt * iimrx n^ 



»,..^^.,«»^*«r PEAVEY C3RAIN C< 






(Courtesy Rumsey & Co. Through John Hill, Jr. i 

Fig. 126. 
WAREHOUSE RECEIPT. 



on Federal 
inspection 



Federal Inspection. The subject of federal inspection of grain 
did. durino- the Congressional Session of 1906, absorb the interests of sen. McCumUe 
the grain trade. We print herewith a statement made by Senator 
McCumber, of North Dakota, before the senate committee on Agri- 
culture and Forestry, January 25, 1906, because it set forth the ad- 
vantages of federal inspection. 



298 



CORN. 



Chief 

inspector 

appoints 

deputies 



Adverse 
to the 
farmer 



Mixing 

grades 

discredits 

our market 



Purchaser 
in full 
control 



Injustice of the Present System, i. Grades and inspections are 
made by inspectors who owe their positions to the influence of the 
large elevator companies and their allegiance to the parties responsible 
for their appointments. 

2. The chief inspector appoints all deputy inspectors. If an appeal I 
is taken from the act of the deputy for improper grading or for anyj 
other cause, such appeal is decided by the chief inspector. The chief 
inspector, who is responsible for the efficiency of his deputy, cannot 
very often overrule him without subjecting himself to criticism for his 
deputies. 

3. The great terminal elevator companies have lines of elevators! 
along every railroad through the states. They arbitrarily instruct 
their buyers to what grade the grain is entitled. They, of course, 
protect themselves against possibility of loss. 

4. Every year, when the crop begins to move, the graders at the 
terminals have adopted a rule that all questions of doubt shall be 
resolved against the producers. The result is that about two-thirds 
of the crop of the farmer has been purchase-d at a grade lower than 
that to which it is entitled. As the season advances, the grade is 
raised. This, of course, raises all of the grades in store and held by 
the elevators, and which were purchased at a lower grade. All ques- 
tions of doubt in grading are resolved against the producer. 

5. The report of the State Grain and Warehouse Commission of 
Minnesota, for instance, every year shows that the number of bushels 
of the higher grades taken in is only a small percentage of the higher 
grades shipped out from the terminal elevators, and that the lower 
grades received are many times over the lower grades shipped out, 
thus defrauding the producers of many millions of dollars every year. 

6. In addition to this, we have our mixing elevators at the term- 
inal. They will mix 1,000,000 bushels of No. i Northern and have the 
same reinspected and graded all as No. i Northern. This grain is then 
shipped — say to Liverpool. The foreign purchaser receives the bill 
of lading, accompanied by the certificate of the grain inspector, show- 
ing the grain to be No. i Northern. He gives it a chemical analysis, 
compares it with Canadian No. i Northern, and finds that the Ameri- 
can No. I Northern is far below the same grade of Canadian wheat. 
This discredits all of our honest grades of wheat in the foreign market, 
and the only person who reaps a benefit is the mixer. 

7. The producer of grain, the farmer, has no voice whatever in 
determining, directly or indirectly, the personnel of the force which 
passes upon the grade and quality of every bushel of grain he sells, 



FEDERAL INSPECTION. 



299 



while the purchaser of the grain controls absolutely the personnel of 
graders and inspectors. This injustice must be apparent. The pro- 
ducer has no means of securing any redress in case of combination, 
corruption, or inefficiency of the inspectors and graders. 

8. It often happens, as I am credibly informed, that for the pur- 
ipose of breaking corners in the gambling deals of the wheat pit, mil- 
' lions of bushels of grain are given false certificates to meet a shortage. 
In the end, the producer pays for the losses resulting from false in- 
spection or certification losses. At present, every grain market has its 
own system of grading and inspection, and no two systems are exactly 
the same. The result is that the same kind and quality of grain 
: shipped from the same field, entering markets of different states, is 

♦ graded differently and named differently, creating confusion and 
generally loss to the producer. 

* 9. Under the present system of inspection, all carloads of grain 
» arriving at the terminals are docked a certain number of pounds per 
I bushel to cover dirt, undeveloped kernels, or any foreign matter in the 

grain. As all this can be removed, and is removed in the elevators, 
: it should not affect the grading. It is, however, often excessive, and 
: while the farmer pays the freight on it, but gets nothing for it, the pur- 
: chaser often sells it for a very good price. 

How National Inspection and Grading Will Remedy Present In- 
' justice. I. Under national inspection all inspectors will be free from 
political influence. They will owe no allegiance to buyer or shipper. 
Their decision will be free from bias. Their grading will be under 
' rules and regulations adopted by the Agricultural Department. They 
' will have as a guide all of the experimentation and accumulated knowl- 
edge of the Department, acquired by years of study and investigation 
and laboratory work on grains. 

2. Proper provision will be made for reinspection in case of com- 
plaint, in place of the present system of appealing from the deputy 
to the principal, whose interest generally demands that he shall sus- 
tain his deputy. 

3. Owners of elevator lines could not instruct their buyers under 
. a national system not to give above a certain grade. The difference 

would be immediately apparent as soon as the same grain was in- 
spected at the terminals, and they could not long do business under 
such instruction when it became publicly known that the local grades 
were below the terminal grades. 

4. There would be no inducement by the national inspectors to 
resolve every doubt in favor of the purchaser and against the producer, 



No two 
systems 
the same 



No alleg- 
iance to 
buyer 
or shipper 



A fairer 

deal to 

producer 

than 

under 

present 

system 



300 



CORN. 



Grades will 
not be deter- 
mined by 
purchaser 



Shipper 
may 
better pro- 
tect his 
Interests 



More 
tair 



Dockage 
unjust 



Change 

could be 

readily 

made 



whereby such purchaser, as is now the case, would secure one-half to 
two-thirds of the crop at a grade low^er than that to which it was en- 
titled. 

5. Under national inspection, it would be impossible to ship out 
three times as many bushels of the higher grades as are taken in the 
the terminal elevators. Under the ]^rcscrt system, the buyer, by con- 
trolling the personnel of the Board of Inspectors, practically deter- 
mines what grade he will buy in at and what grade he will sell out at. 
The Department inspectors would apply the same test on grain re 
ceived as shipped out. 

6. If the shipper mixed his grades, such mixture would ha\e lo 
be again inspected and graded by the Department, and such grain 
could not be sold in the market under a false certificate. This would 
give confidence in our American standards and facilitate our export 
business in wheat, corn and flax the same way that our meat inspection 
has facilitated commerce in meat. 

7. The producer of North Dakota or South Dakota, for instance, 
has not the slightest voice in determining the personnel of the political 
inspectors of his grain in IMinneapolis, Duluth, Superior, or Chicago, 
where he must sell it, nor can his voice be heard as to the proper sys- 
tem of inspection or grading. Under national inspection, he can 
be heard. Through his representation he is brought in touch with the 
Department, which must listen to his complaint or suggestions, and if 
they are well founded, will seek to apply a pr rpcr remedy. In addition 
to this, an inspector, if found incompetent, may be discharged, or re- 
moved to another section of the country where he might be competent. 

8. Under national inspection, it would be almost impossible to 
secure false certificates as to grades to assist in gambling deals on the 
Board of Trade. 

9. Dockage should have nothing to do with grades. A sufficient 
amount is deducted by the buyer to cover not only the amount of poor 
wheat and any dirt or foul stuff, but also to cover expense of cleaning. 
While this dockage is a total loss to the producer, and worse than a 
loss, because he is compelled to pay freight on it, it is a gain to the 
purchaser, for, while the purchaser pays nothing for it, he sells it to be 
ground into cattle feed, or grinds it himself and sells it to good ad- 
vantage. 

Feasibility of National Inspection, i. The change from State 
and Board of Trade inspection now in vogue, to National inspection 
and grading, would be most simple. The Department could, over night, 
take the present force of inspectors and make them national inspectors. 



OBJECTION TO FEDERAL IXSPECTIOX. 



301 



It could then work off the incompetent as occasion required. These 
inspectors would be new men only in being free from political influence 
or personal fealty. 

2. Inasmuch as national inspection and grading would cover only 
grains raised in one state and shipped into another, or grains shipped 
from one state to a foreign market, and would not include grains raised 
in a state to be used wholly therein, the present number of inspectors 
could be greatly reduced. 

3. There would be no difficulty in fixing grades. The Depart- 
ment would naturally accept all present commercial grades and would, 
of course, modify them only as experience demanded. The modifi- 
cation, therefore, would be made without the slightest injury to com- 
mercial contracts or interest. 

4. The bill makes provision for sales by samples and without the 
use of grades where such may be the custom, or where any purchaser 
desires to so purchase. But, of course, all exports should be graded. 

5. The present charges for grading and inspection range from 50 

to 75 cents per car. At 50 cents per car, there would be raised far more fx^pe"nse 
than sufficient to cover the expense of Government inspection and one^foumf 
grading. My own belief is that it could be reduced to about 25 or 35 
cents per car. 

6. There arc about 8 species of wheat raised in the United 
States, each with its own name and each graded by numbers. The 
bill provides that such grades and species should be recognized in the 
beginning and should be modified only as experience should demand. 

Objections to Federal Inspection, (ieo. A. Wells. Secretary of the 
Western Grain Dealers' Association, points out the following difficul- 
ties that might arise from federal inspection : 

"(i) Would a federal grain inspector be more competent in exer- 
cising his personal judgment than the board of trade or state inspector, 
grain inspection being largely a matter of personal judgment no posi- 
tive scientific basis having yet been established? 

"(2) Considering the fact that grain does not change in condition, 
as by the absorption or evaporation of moisture, etc., would not the 
same difficulty involved in such changing of conditions exist under 
federal inspection? 

"(3) Suppose a country grain dealer bought No. 3 corn from a 
farmer, and when it arrived at market it inspected No. 4, both in- 
spections being federal, would the Government 'make good,' or would 
it be considered as merely performing a 'governmental function', with 
no liability for damage? 



Needs men 
of practical 
experience 



302 



CORN. 



\. dual system 

with 

double cost 



Unlimited 

authority 

rnwise 



Must be 
consistent 
in claims 



Boards of 

Trade in 

general not 

favorable 

to federal 

Inspection 



"(4) Could the foreign buyer hold 'Uncle Sam' responsible for 
delivery of grain of the quality represented by the goveinment seal 
of inspection? 

"(5) Federal inspection could have jurisdiction only with inter- 
state grain, while the present systems would no doub'. still be main- 
tained, thus making a dual inspection with a double cost and endless 
complications. 

"(6) The McCumber l)ill gives the Secretary of Agriculture prac- 
tically unlimited authorit}- in the establishment of the proposed 
federal inspection of grain. Is this advisable? 

"(7) Do we want a system established, that if it should prove im- 
practicable, cannot be removed, but that would cost the farmers of 
the state a vast amount of money? 

"(8) Is it not a fact that there is an element of competition in 
the present system of inspection tlxat accrues to the benefit of the 
farmer, and that this would be removed by the federal inspection? 

"(9) If in a general sense the profits in the present system of 
handling grain as between the farmer and the consumer are not ex- 
cessive, how is 'Uncle Sam' going to give the foreign buyer more value 
for his money and at the same time give the farmer more money for 
his grain?" 

Opinions of Boards of Trade, In order to obtain the views of the 
men who are daily interested in the grain business, a number of the 
Boards of Trade, located at the terminal and the terminal-export 
markets, were asked for a statement. The Boston Chamber of Com- 
merce stands bitterly against federal inspection, because it believes 
it to be impracticable. When a car of grain reaches an elevator, it 
loses its identity and the inspection certificate is worthless. They state 
further that it guarantees nothing to the producer and does not pro- 
tect the consumer. 

The Board of Trade of Chicago is not in favor of federal super- 
vision. 

Baltimore Board of Trade states that such a measure would be in- 
terfering with State rights. 

Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce is against it because the federal 
authorities do not know local specific conditions. 

The Board of Trade of Duluth, Minnesota, was not dissatisfied 
with the work of the State Inspectors in Minnesota, but because part 
of their warehouses and elevators were located in l)oth Minnesota and 
Wisconsin, there was a feeling that more stable condition of aflfairs 
could be brought about through federal inspection. 



TERMINAL-EXPORT MARKETS. 



303 



Arguments raised by the more southern markets, St. Louis, New 
Orleans, and Kansas City, were based principally upon impractica- 
bility. Grain must be handled rapidly at certain times of the year and 
the question of Government supervision being adequate is raised. 

The most urgent need of federal inspection is in the corn which 
leaves the terminal-export markets. This will be considered later. 

TERMINAL-EXPORT MARKETS. 

The principal terminal-export markets are New York, New Or- 
leans, Baltimore, Galveston, Boston, San Francisco, Philadelphia, and 
the Canadian ports on the St. Lawrence. In 1905, New York, New 
Orleans and Galveston transferred o\er 50 per cent of the total ex- 
portations from storage to vessels. 



The most 
urgent need 
of federal 
inspection 



EXPORTS OF CORN FROM 1899 TO 1902 INCLUSIVE, FROM THE PRIN- 
CIPAL ATLANTIC AND GULF PORTS ONLY. 



197683.000 
17,424.000 
29.231,000 
46.002,000 
20,266,000 

16,581,000 

14,588,000 

5,938,000 

6,637,000 

1,600,000 

Total I 197,950,000 



1899 



1900 



1901 



1902 



New York , 

Boston 

Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

New Orleans 

Montreal, Portland, 

and Quebec ... 

Newport News .... 

Norfolk 

Galveston 

Other Ports* 



St. John 



43,256,000 
14,092,000 
33,364,000 
42,118,000 
22.966,000 

13,812,000 
9,372,000 
4.185,000 
3,302.000 
1.450,000 
187,917.000 



22,749,000 
11.058.000 
16.355,000 
25,370,000 
12,827,000 

5,584.000 

3,567,000 

2,281,000 

128,000 

278,000 

100.197,000 



2,918,000 
779,000 
2,045,000 
3,844,000 
1,571,000 

300,000 

1,212,000 

396,000 

757,000 

38,000 

13,860,000 



EXPORTS OF CORN FROM 1903 TO 1907 INCLUSIVE, FROM THE PRIN- 
CIPAL ATLANTIC AND GULF PORTS ONLY. 





1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


New York 

Boston 


21,840,000 
7,118,000 
10.491.000 
19,461,000 
13.828,000 

9.243.000 
3.723.000 

818,000 
4,386.000 

171,000 
91,079.000 


9,807,000 
4,264,000 
5,908,000 
8,474,000 
5,111,000 

4,554,000 

1,191,000 

579,000 

3,408,000 

478,0001 

43,774.000 


27,628,000 
10,934,000 
8,062,000 
14,954,000 
20,410,000 

8,754,000 

2,929,000 

1,386,000 

10,278,000 

SlO.OOOj 

106,145,000 


20,570,000 

3,950,000 

9,151,000 

24,110,000 

18,388,000 

4,813,000 

3,524,000 

820,000 

'10,332,000 

1,154,000 

96,962,000 


21,750,000 
5,668,000 


Philadelphia 

Baltimore 

New Orleans 

Montreal, Portland, 

St. John & Quebec 

Newport News .... 

Norfolk 


6,422,000 

19,358,000 

7,550,000 

4,674,000 

1,242,000 

355,000 


Galveston 

Other Ports* 

Total 


6,609,000 

1,127,000 

74,755,000 



Exportation From Southern Ports Increasing. 

It will be noted from the above table the exportation of corn from 
the southern ports is steadily increasing. Railroad facilities in the 
Mississippi Valley are more efficient now than in earlier years. The 

* Other Ports, includes Charleston, Pensacola, Mobile and Port Arthur. 



n04 CORN. 






damaged 



States in the so-called semi-arid region are growing more acreage and 
the product can be more cheaply transported to Galveston or Port 
Arthur than east to the Atlantic. However, during 1906, Chicago, 
which is usually classified as a terminal market, but which in recent 
years has developed an export trade, shipped direct from its docks 
by lake, 2,997,151 bushels. Detroit is also a large terminal-export 
market, as are Toledo and Buffalo. 

The exportation from the southern j^orts accounts for much of 
the corn being spoiled when it reaches the European markets. The 
climate is warmer and the degree of humidity much higher on the 
thrcor^n Gulf Coast; hence corn stored and shipped from these ports enters the 
is damaged ^^^^^^j j^ condition favorable to heating. Within the last year the 
government has taken steps to inspect all corn before it is loaded, to 
msure against shipment of grain which is damaged. 

Drying Export Corn. 

*"For several years, complaints have frequently been made as to the 
condition in which our export grain, especially corn, arrives in Euro- 
instances 10 pcan ports. During the past spring, a representative of this Bureau 
''*'^cia*s"ed^as (Plant Industry) visited the principal grain-holding ports of Europe 
and made careful in(|uiries to determine how far these reports w^ere 
founded on fact and how far they were colored in the interest of the 
purchaser on the other side. 

"It is to be regretted that many cargoes of corn from the United 
States have arrived in European ports in damaged condition. In 
Rotterdam, nearly 10 percent of our corn received last season was 
damaged. The same condition exists in other ports and has seriously 
injured the reputation of corn from the United States. The result has 
been an increased European trade in corn from the Argentine Repub- 
lic, our only important competitor. 

"The trade in Argentine corn has grown, both because it is sold in 
London by tons, and because it stands shipment better than corn from 
this country on account of its hard, flinty character. 

"Our softer dent corn is nevertheless preferred in all the European 
markets, and the maintenance and increase of our export trade are de- 
pendent only upon its being shipped so that it will arrive in uniformly 
good condition. As deterioration of corn during ocean transit is di- 
rectly dependent upon the amount of moisture it contains, there is an 
easy and practicable remedy for the present condition in artificial dry- 
ing. This has been successfully tried at New Orleans and the neces- 
sary machinery is now being installed in Baltimore and Boston. Thus 

*Yriir Hiiiik of llic Dcitartnit nt of Agripulturo for lOOf). paste 170. 



Artificial 
drying 



EXPORT MARKETS. 305 

far, practically no attention has been given to determining just how 
dry grain should be in order to stand shipment under varying condi- 
tions on board steamships and at different seasons of the year." 

Freight Rates from Terminal to Terminal-Export Markets, Corn vary ac- 
is usually shipped from "Terminal" markets to "Terminal-Export" loute and 
markets. The freight rates vary according to the route and methods of of trans- 
transportation. In 1900, the rate for corn by river from St. Louis to p*"^ ^ ^"'^ 
New Orleans was 10 cents per sack of 100 pounds. Corn shipped from 
Chicago to New York by lake and canal cost in 1906, .0551 cent per 
bushel exclusive of lUifTalo charges for transferring from lake steamer 
to canal boat. By lake and rail, .02572 cent per bushel covered the en- 
tire cost of transportation between the same points. Because of more 
rapid transit, shipment by rail entirely cost .0952 cent per bushel, dur- 
ing the same year. A freight rate of 13 cents per 100 pounds is charged 
from Chicago to P>()ston, 12 cents to Montreal, Quebec, and Portland, 
12 cents to Philadelphia and 11 5^ cents to I>altimore, Norfolk, Virgin- 
ia, and Newport News. 



EXPORT MARKETS. 

The falling off in exports of agricultural products, and especially Agricui- 

wheat and wheaten flour, continues to be a marked characteristic of products 

the cx])t)rt trade. The i)crcentage of the total domestic exports which fng ptcc' 

agricultural products formed was in 1907 but 48; in 1905, but 55.4 per S^actu?ed" 

cent against 69.73 per cent in 1895 ; 72.96 per cent in 1885, and 76.95 in fn^exp'Srt 

ct trade 
1875. 



Comparing 1905 with 1895, the exports of manufacture show an in- 
crease of practically 200 per cent, and those of mines, forests and 
fisheries, an increase of more than 100 per cent each, while those of 
agriculture have increased only 50 per cent in the same period. The 
steady decline in the percentage which agricultural products form of 
the total exports is due, says the Secretary of Agriculture, to the in- 
crease in the exports of other products, especially manufactures, rather 
than any material decrease in the products of agriculture as a whole. 

Production has steadily and rapidly increased. Exportation has 
fluctuated, being governed largely by the surplus. Its decrease or lack 
of growth need not be viewed with timidity, because of the increased 
home consumption. 



306 



CORN. 



Amount of Corn Exported. 

TOTAL EXPORTS OF CORN FROM UNITED STATES. 



Year. 



Amount. 



Pei'cent Crop 
Produced. 



I 



1900 


213,123,412 
181,405.473 
28.028.688 
76,639.261 
58.222.061 
90.293.483 
119.893.833 
86,368,228 


10.30 


1901 


8.62 


1902 


1.84 


1903 


3.04 


1904 


2.59 


1905 


3.66 


1906 


4.43 


1907 


2.95 







It will be noted that in any year the percent of the corn crop which 
is exported is very small, and that the United States is decreasing in 
the exportation of corn is shown very clearly by the low percent (2.95) 
in 1907, following the heavy crop of 1906. 

The following table shows the exports of corn from the United 
States from 1867 to 1899 inclusive : 







1870. 


2,140.487 


1880, 


99,572,329 


1890, 


103,418,709 






1871. 


10,676.873 


1881. 


93,648,147 


1891, 


32.041,529 






1872, 


35,727,010 


^882, 


44,340,683 


1892, 


76,602,285 






1873, 


40.154.374 


1883, 


41,655.653 


1893, 


47,121,894 






1874, 


35.985,834 


1884, 


46,258.606 


1894, 


66,489,529 






1875, 


30.025,036 


1885, 


52.876,456 


1895, 


28,585,405 






1876. 


50,910,532 


1886, 


64,829.617 


1896, 


101,100,375 


1867, 


16,026,947 


1877, 


72,652.611 


1887, 


41,368.584 


1897, 


178,817,417 


1868. 


12.493,522 


1878. 


87.192,110 


1888, 


25,360,869 


1898, 


212,055,543 


1869, 


8.286,665 


1879, 


87,884,892 


1889, 


70,841,673 


1899, 


177,255,046 



The following table shows the amount of corn exported from the 
United States during the one year at the end of each decade : 



1790, 
1800, 
1810, 



3,929,214 
5,308,483 
7,239,881 



1820. 9,638,453 
1830, 12,866,020 
1840. 17,069,453 



1850, 23,191.876 
1860, 31,443,332 
1870, 38,558,371 



1880, 50,155,783 
1890. 62,622.250 
1900, 75,693.734. 



Countries Purchasing Export Corn. The following table indicates 
which countries buy most of the corn exported from the United States: 



Ve.ir 


To Great Britain 


To Continental Europe j To^^Oj^f 


1899 


91,374,000 
91,412,000 
49,631,000 
6,020.000 
42.871.000 
21,286,000 
48,661,000 
37,933.000 


103,980,000 
93,059,000 
47,556.000 
6,250.000 
44.137.000 
20.522.000 
54,663.000 
55,538.000 


2,596,000 
3,446,000 
3,010,000 
1,599,000 
4,071,000 
1,966,000 
2,821,000 
3,341,000 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 





PRICES OF EXPORT CORN. 307 

Among the continental nations, Germany and the Netherlands 
are the largest purchasers, receiving in 1904, 23.5 and 11 percent re- 
spectively of the whole corn exported from the United States. Bel- 
gium and Denmark are quite extensive buyers. Canada has always 
drawn largely upon American corn, but not so heavily within the past 
five years as formerly. The British West Indies buy extensively and 
the demand in the Islands is yearly increasing. Until 1906, British 
South Africa imported American corn, but in that year Rhodesia ex- 
ported a local surplus to England. 

Prices of Export Corn. From 1896 to 1900, the average price of 
corn sold for export was $.369 per bushel. From 1881 to 1907 
inclusive, a period of 26 years, the average price was $.529 per bushel. 

Monthly Price of Export corn as it Left the Port at time of Ex- 
portation. 

1906, July $.574 per bushel. 

August 57 " " 

" September 545 " " 

" October 546 " 

" November 524 " " 

" December 502 " " 

1907, January $.498 per bushel. 

" February 506 " " 

" March 516 " 

" April 528 " 

" May 574 " 

" June 594 '• 

Average 539 " 

Import Duties. Tlie import duties in the countries using the major 
part of corn exported from the United States are as follows : 



Germany and 
Netherlands 
large 
purchasers 



Price per 
bushel 



Country. 



Foreign Unit. 



Equivalent in America. 



France, 


3francs per quintal. 


$ .579 


for 


220.46 


pounds 


Germany, 


3 marks per quintal, 


.714 


for 


220.46 


pounds 


Spain, 


2.25 pesetas per quintal, 


.434 


for 


220.46 


pounds 


Sweden, 


3.70 kroner per quintal, 


.99 


for 


220.46 


pounds 


Belgium, 


Free, 










Russia, 


Free, 










England, 


Free, 











European Distributing Points. 



Principal 
distributing 

Liverpool, London, Glasgow, Hull, Manchester, Hamburg, Bremer, Em-o^pe" 



Christiana, Copenhagen, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Havre, Marseilles, 
Genoa and Naples, are the principal distributing points of Europe. 

Export Freight Rates. — American grain destined for foreign mar- 
kets is sold "C. I. F." (cost, insurance, freight), the marine insurance 



308 



CORN. 



and ocean freight being included in the cost. The rates on corn and 
wheat from Boston to Liverpool averaged 3.42 cents per 60 pounds for 
the year 1906; from New York, 3.1 1; from Baltimore, 4.03; New Or- 
leans, 6.86; Galveston, 6.60. A study of the rates from month to 
month shows ihcin to be the hit^hcst in January and the lowest in June. 
A severe criticism has been made of this tendency of ship owners, be- 
cause it tends to hold the American surplus back until late in the 
season. 

. . American Trade Certificate in Export Trade. During the last 

grain dis- fe^vr years American grain has been discriminated against rather se- 

criminated -' ° ... 

against vercly. This discrimination has been a united action of the grain-hand- 
ling interests in Europe, which from their letters seems justifiable, 
They have taken a very fair view of the situation and seem willing to 
co-operate with the American exporter in removing the trouble. 

The following letter was read by Hon. Alse J. Gronna, Represen- 
tative from the State of North Dakota, before House Committee on 
Interstate and Foreign Commerce: 

"London Corn Trade Association, 

Exchange Chambers, 28 St. Mary Ave., 
London, January 20, 1908. 
"Mr. President, — 

"I am instructed by the European International Committee on 
American Grain Certificates to communicate to you the following 
facts : 

"There has been for some years past,a general consensus of opinion 
among European buyers of grain that the operation of the present 
system of certificating grain for export is increasingly unsatisfactory 
and that whatever may be its merits for the purposes of domestic trad- 
ing, it no longer gives to European buyers the confidence and protec- 
tion which is necessary in a trade where the only guaranty for re- 
liable quality and condition in exchange for buyer's money is a paper 
certificate. Formerly, buyers in buying from the United States of 
America were able, as they still are in their dealings in grain with 
other exporting countries, to recover from shippers any damage they 
sustain owing to defects in quality or condition; but since the intro- 
duction of the certificating system, this is no longer possible. Even 
after its introduction, indeed, until comparatively recent times, it was 
seldom found that any serious abuses arose and, trusting to their be- 
lief in the reliability of the grading system, buyers were willing to 
continue trading with America on less favorable terms than they de- 
manded elsewhere; but, whether from increase of individual competi- 



Trade certif- 
icate not 
popular in 
Europe 



Does not 

protect 

purchaser 



GRAIN CERTIFICATES. 309 

tion, or what is probably more important, the rivalry between the old- 
er ports and their smaller and more recently established competitors, 
there seems little doubt that the standard of grading has been low- 
ered, either temporarily, or in some cases permanently, in order to at- 
tract business from interior points. We in Europe feel that the bur- 
den of such departure from the more reliable and stricter method in meti^df 
force formerly, has been borne chiefly by European importers who, be- °°* pop"iar 
ing far away, have no power of protecting themselves against errors 
or worse in the grading methods of recent years. The result is that 
American grain suffers as regards price when in competition with 
grain from other countries. 

Robert A. Patterson, 

Chairman European International 

Committee on American Grain Certificates. 

"rrcsidcnl I'nitcd States of America, 

White House, Washington, U. S. A." 
A Criticism from Another Source. 

"Het Comite van Graanhandelaren te 
Rotterdam, 
Rotterdam, February 20, 1907. 
"Rcjiresentativc J. A. Groinia, Esq., 
Washington, D. C. 
"During the last lU'rlin Grain Conference held January 29th and 
30th of this year, by delegates of the German, Holland and Scandi- 
navian grain trade, the McCumber bill and the other bills of similar 
character introduced into Congress, were one of the chief subjects on „ 

° ■• Grain 

the program. During many years, already, the American Grain In- inspection 
spection certificates have been very unsatisfactory and immense losses very 
were caused to the buyers on this side by the careless inspection of factory 
American grain shipped for export. It has been said by American op- 
ponents of the bills mentioned above that the fixing of grades on bet- 
ter and higher standards would injure the export trade, and that the 
European buyers will not buy anything but the grades which have al- 
ways been shipped and to which they are accustomed. 

"Many im])ortant firms in the im])orting centers on this side have 
absolutely given up importing American corn, taught by the experi- 
ence of several years, when a single parcel of this article, certified No. some firms 
2 mixed, sail mixed, etc., and still showing 30 to 90 per cent damage on corn^^from 
arrival, caused a loss greater than the small gain made on many ship- 
ments together. They prefer to buy from Argentina, Russia and the 
Danube. A better inspection, however, and certificates which give suf- 



the U. S. 



310 CORN. 

ficient guaranty that the grade has really been given in accordance 
with the grain's quality and condition, will induce these firms to take 
up the importation of American corn again. 

"We don't t)l)jcct to the export of infericjr grain. l)ut to the fact that 
the grades are not given according to the condition of the grain, so 
that the certificates are entirely unreliable. Perhaps some buyers on 
this side want the inferior grain, but those who deal in the better quali- 
ties want to be sure that when they pay a better price for the higher 
grade, the certificate gives them the guaranty to get this grade. 

"As soon as grades all over the United States are uniform, and as 
soon as certificates of inspection will be reliable, the importation of 
American grain will certainly increase after the sharp decline which it 
has experienced. 

"L'niforniCiovernment ins])ection will bring a higher standard of ex- 
port grain, induce the European importer to buy American grain more 
freely again, and consequently benefit the honest American exporter 
at the cost of his dishonest competitor. It will greatly purify the trade 
and make an end to an unbearable situation. 
Yours truly, 
Het Comite van Graanhandelaren te Rotterdam, 
Rotterdam Corn Trade Association, 
A. Coan, Sr., President, 
H. Van Randeryk, Secretary." 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The local elevator men on the rail- 
roads in Iowa have been very prompt in answering inquiries concern- 
ing local conditions. 

The reports of the Secretary of the Iowa (now Western) Grain 
Dealers' Association have been drawn upon freely. Mr. Wells has wil- 
lingly co-operated with us in every interest. 

The Farmers Co-operative Society of Rockwell, and the State Co- 
operative organization, have been very faithful in their attention to our 
inquiries. 

We have quoted many practical points directly from the Shippers' 
Manual, edited by H. A. Foss, Weighmaster of the Weighing Depart- 
ment, of Chicago Board of Trade. 

W. S. Cowen, Chief Insi)ector of (irain at Chicago, has outlined the 
steps in the inspection of a car of grain when it reaches Chicago. 

The Boards of Trade of the principal markets have offered many 
valuable suggestions in rendering their opinions. 



COLLATERAL READING. 



311 



COLLATERAL READING. The Annual Reports of the Boards 
of Trade of the principal terminal and terminal-export markets. These 
may be secured by application to the secretaries of the respective 
boards. 

Shippers' Manual, issued by the Chicago Board of Trade. 

The Book of Corn, by Herbert My rick. 

Examining and Grading Grains, by I.yons and Montgomery. 

Year Books of the Department of Agriculture. 

Reports of the Bureau of CumnuTce and Navigation. 



CilAI'TER XIII 

BOARDS OF TRADE 

THEIR ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS METHODS 



Founded 

Mar. 13, 

1848 



Preamble 

and 

purpose 



Charter 

members 

had 

faith 

In 

Chicago 



The large grain and provision markets have established Boards 
of Trade. Their purpose and operation are here outlined, taking 
the facts from the Chicago Board of Trade, which is the largest and 
most important in the United States. 

THE BOARD OF TRADE OF THE CITY OF CHICAGO. On 

ihc 13th of March, 1848. thirteen men, representing the commercial 
interests of Chicago, organized the Board of Trade of the City of 
Chicago and laid down the fundamental principles and policies which 
have made this Exchange the greatest of its kind in the world, as well 
as a model for all similar exchanges since formed here and elsewhere, 
and have given this city premiership among the world's grain and 
provision markets. 

What the founders of this institution aimed to accomplish and 
what it has stood for during nearly two-thirds of a century of its cor- 
porate life, was thus enunciated in the Preamble of the Rules and 
By-laws : 

"To maintain a Commercial Exchange; to promote uniformity in 
the customs and usages of merchants; to inculcate principles of jus- 
tice and equity in trade; to facilitate the speedy adjustment of busi- 
ness disputes; to acquire and disseminate valuable commercial and 
economic information; and generally, to secure to its members the 
benefits of co-operation in the furtherance of their legitimate pursuits." 

So comprehenrive and satisfactory is this expression of commer- 
cial, ethical and civic ideals, that it has never been found necessary to 
modify it in any particular, and it stands today as when it was first 
voiced, the fundamental article of the organic law of the Chicago 
Iloard of Trade. 

The charter members of this commercial exchange had been 
engaged in the infant trade of the city from the time of its incorpora 
tion. They were enthusiastic believers in the future, full of courage, 
hope, and determination to live up to the opportunities which they 
'^law around them on every hand awaiting development. These men 



HISTORY CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE. 



313 



had deep and abiding faith in the city which they had helped to found. 
They were men of sagacity and their foresight had in it the quality ol 
intuition. They perceived that this city, situated on the peerless 
waterways of the Great Lakes and adjacent to the limitless fertile 
plains of the Mississippi Valley, was destined to be not only a com- 
mercial metropolis, but also a dominant force in the markets of the 
world. At that time, Chicago had a population of less than 30,000, 
the state of Illinois had only 157,000 people, and the United States 
had not yet attained a total of 13,000,000 population. Today, the pop 
ulation of Chicago is, in round numbers, 2,400,000; of Illinois, 5,500,- 
000; of the United States, 90,000,000. Chicago was further removed 
from New York than we are now distant from the antipodes. Her 
transportation facilities were of the most meager sort and communi- 
cation was by the slow-going stage, the infrequent sailing vessel or 
the laboring post-rider. 

If the "manifest destiny" of Chicago was to be worked out, it was 
necessary that there should be an organized effort to attract trade, to Mission 
facilitate the transaction of business, and to reduce the hazards of Chicago 
commerce by building up a body of principles which should have the ^°^'d 
force of law, insuring righteous dealings between the buyer and the Trade 
seller and banishing chicanery and deceit from the code of trading. 
Such was the mission of the Board of Trade of the City of Chicago. 

But the objects of these founders of Chicago's greatness were 
broader than mere self-interest. They grappled with large public 
problems from the very outset, striving in all possible ways to facili- 
tate profitable dealings with the farms of the Central Valley and the 
mills of the East, seeking to connect Chicago by telegraph with the 
eastern markets, and in many other ways fostering commercial ad- 
vancement. 

There is the best possible evidence of the energy with which the 
little voluntary organization prosecuted its work for the benefit of 
the city and its citizens; for, in the year after the first meeting in 
South Water street, the General Assembly of the State of Illinois 
enacted fostering laws relating to Boards of Trade. In 1850, the Leg- 
islature enacted a special charter for "The Board of Trade of the 
City of Chicago ;" and nine years later, when events had proved that 
the grants thus conferred were inadequate for the proper working out 
of the mission of the institution, the General Assembly enacted a new 
charter law, giving the corporation the right of perpetual existence 
and clothing it with very broad power and authority to regulate the 
trading practices and commercial conduct of the affairs of this market. 



G«neral 
Assembly 
of 

Illinois 
enacted a 
special 
charter 
in 1850 



314 



CORN. 



Grain 

inspection 

inaagurated 

in 1858 



Present 

Board of 

Trade 

building 

dedicated 1885 



1726 
members 
in 1908 



9:30 a. m. 

to 

1:15 p. m. 

except 

Saturdays 

9:30 a. m. 

to 

12 m. 



Directly in line with the policy expressed, the Chicago Board of 
Trade introduced in 1858 the system of grain inspection which, as 
much as any other one thing, has contributed to the prestige of Chi- 
cago. This inspection system is still in force substantially as it was 
when devised by the administration of 1858, and it has been accepted 
as the model for virtually all the grain markets of the country, if not 
of the world. 

Prior to the enactment of the special charter of 1859, the Board 
had been restricted in its powers and limited in its resources, despite 
the financial assistance afforded by the city council ; but when the new 
charter was granted, the membership quickly increased to 725 and the 
treasury soon showed a comfortable surplus. Outgrowing rented 
quarters, the Board determined to erect an exchange building at La 
Salle and Washington streets. This first fixed abode of the Board 
was occupied in 1865 and remained until the fire of 1871 laid it in 
ashes. Within a year, the structure was rebuilt and was the center 
of the country's grain trade until 1885, when the present Board of 
Trade building was dedicated. 

*T()da^^ with a membership of 1726, the Chicago Board of Trade is 
recognized as the dominant factor in the determination of the prices 
of grain and provisions. More than that, it is universally recognized 
as the most potent force extant for the maintenance of those principles 
of business morality and justice which its founders embodied in the 
preamble of sixty years ago. Its quotations are unquestioned, its sta- 
tistics unimpugned ; its certificates of inspection, weights, and grading 
unchallenged ; and the word of its members as good as gold anywhere 
and at any time. 

Hours for Regular Trading. "No trade or contract for the future 
delivery of grain or provisions shall be made, or offered to be made, 
by any member or members of this Association, in the exchange room 
of the Board nor in any of the public streets, courts or passages in the 
immediate vicinity thereof, or in any hall, or exchange hall, or cor- 
ridor in any building located or fronting on such streets, courts or 
passages on any business day, except from 9:30 o'clock A. M. to i :i5 
o'clock P. M., or upon any Saturday except from 9:30 o'clock to 12 
o'clock M. nor on any day or that part of a day on which the Board 
shall hold no business session; it being the object and intent of this 
rule that all fuch trading which may tend to the maintenance of a 
public market shall be confined within the hours above specified." 

Terms Used in Trading. Like every other business occupation, 

*July, 1908. 



CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE BUILDING. 



315 




(Courtesy of Chicago Board of Trade) Fig. 127. 

CHICAGO BOARD OF TRADE BUILDING. 



316 CORN. 

the daily exchanges of communication employ certain terms and 
phrases peculiar to its needs and operations. 

"Futures,"' commodities bought on contract for delivery, which 
may or may not be actually made at a later date. 

"Settlement" price, a convenient price made upon a given dale 
(usually about the same as the price on the market on that date), by 
which settlements of contracts which are not delivered are made. 

"Delivery" price, a price fixed. upon a given date (usually about 
the same as the price on the market on that day), by which the finan- 
cial settlements in regard to contracts actually delivered are made. 

"Short" trading refers to the practice of selling grain which a 
trader does not actually possess, but contracts to deliver it in the 
future. It is sometimes called "fictitious," because it does not at the 
moment represent grain on hand. 

The Sign Language of the Pit Traders. The visitor sitting in the 
Ian ua^e ^'^''^^X ^^ Exchange Hall during a fiurry in the grain pits on the floor 
accuTit^ rarely fails to express wonder that there can be any orderly and certain 
transaction of business in such a hurly-burly. But the trader in the 
middle of the excited throng sees in the turmoil, only the fierce deter- 
mination of his fellows to buy at the cheapest or to sell at the highest 
possible price. As to the intentness of any man in the pit at that 
moment, the practiced trader has no doubt whatever. Articulate 
speech is not only impossible, under such circumstances, but useless. 
The eye is quicker than the ear; and the signals given with the hand 
or by a gesture pi the head mean as much as a telegram to the per- 
son addressed. Rarely does a mistake occur in this sign language 
trading. 

The sign-manual of the pit trader is simplicity itself, and with a 

very little practice anyone can become adept at it; but it calls for 

natural aptitude to be a master of the strategy and generalship de- 

rnanuai uianded of a good broker. Corn having sold at 48 cents, for instance, 

simple 111 

a trader catches the eye of some one opposite in the pit who has 
50,000 bu:;hels to sell, and partly by telepathy, partly by a motion of 
the clenched fist, signals that he will take the "50 wheat" at 48. 
The seller, in reply, holds up his right hand with the index finger ex- 
tended horizontally, indicating that he wants 48^^ cents. The buyer 
motions acceptance and signals back ^s- The two traders note on 
their cards "Sold 50 at }i, Jones" and "Bot 50 at i/^. Smith." After 
they leave the pit they meet and check the operation. 

The hand beint;- held horizontally, the clenched fist indicates the 
price in even cents, l^ach finger represents an added eighth of a cent 



OMAHA GRAIN EXCHANGE. 



317 



Each 

finger 

represents 

5000 

bushels 



The latest 
price is 
put on 
the ticker 



Feb. 1, 1904 



up to five-eighths ; the extended hand with the fingers close together 
means threc-ciuartcrs and the thumb only, signals seven-eighths ; but 
the whole hand displayed vertically means 25,000 bushels, each finger 
counting 5,000 bushels; whether offered or being bid for, is shown 
by a slight motion of the hand to or from the trader making the signal. 
The official reporter stationed in the pit sees all the signaling, ano' 
partly by observation and partly on information given him by the 
traders, notes the latest price and gives it to a telegraph operator at 
his side to be "put on the ticker." Thus the price of grain is made 
every moment of the session and transmitted to all the markets of 
the world. When understood, the chaos of the pit becomes an intel- 
ligible language even to the nonparticipant. 

OMAHA GRAIN EXCHANGE. The Omaha Grain Exchange 
was organized in the autumn of 1903 and incorporated and commenced 
business about February i, 1904. At that time Omaha was not a 
grain market; only a stopping place for grain in transit. The organi- 
zation of the Grain Exchange brought about an adjustment of freight 
rates whereby grain produced in Iowa and Nebraska could be mer- 
chandised at Omaha and reshipped. 

The Omaha Grain Exchange has a membership of 166 with a paid 
up cash capital of $83,000. Elevators have been erected in Omaha members 
and vicinity with a capacity in excess of 6,000,000 bushels. 

SPECULATION IN THE GRAIN TRADE. Boards of Tradf 
were originally and ijriniarily established for bringing together buy- 
ers and sellers of cash products. Out of this a speculative trade iv 
grain has developed ; that is, contracts are made for future de- 
livery of grain. The producing territory of the United State? 
is so extensive and the system of distribution of the agricul- 
tural products so complex that the element of speculation enters 
largely into its operation. It is impossible to define where speculation 
begins and business risks end. Reasonable speculation is such specu 
lation as cannot seriously or permanently affect the resources or posi- 
tions of the persons indulging in it. Intelligent speculation is such 
speculation as is indulged in only after a thorough investigation and 
study of the subject of the speculation. Reckless and plunging spec- 
ulation, which is prompted by no motive except greed, guided by no 
thought except chance, usually leads to downfall and is the kind 
tabooed by the Boards of Grain Exchange. 

The speculators of the corn and wheat pits are the distributors of 
the nation's farm products. The Industrial Commission in its report 



166 



31S 



CORN. 



Tbis 

commercial 

class is 

well 

informed 



Speculation 

sensational 

feature 

of 

grain 

trade 



Future 
dellTeries 
first used 

In '60 



to Congress on January 15, 1901, found that these men did the work 
on a closer margin of cost than the producer could do it. The risks 
of distribution are shifted by both producers and consumers upon the 
distinct class of speculators known as distributors. If the risk of 
distribution fell upon the farmer, it would increase materially the 
risks of capital required and thus raise the rate of interest. He would 
have to pay as a producer, because increased risk always raises the 
rate of interest. This would increase the cost of production and 
consequently tend to reduce consumption by rise of price to consum- 
ers. Such rise of price beyond a certain point would reduce the vol- 
ume of trade. Consumers cannot shoulder the burden of distribution 
because they would soon be neglecting their occupations which make 
them heavy purchasers. 

The existing system of speculative grain trade is essentially the 
essence of the specialization of industries and pursuits of the Ameri- 
can industrial fabric. It is the fundamental division of labor between 
the development of agricultural and manufacturing resources. This 
separate commercial class is in position to inform itself as to all the 
factors, past, present and prospective, affecting the course of prices. 
But the distribution of the domestic surplus is not all. The world- 
wide service to society of feeding the consumers of another conti- 
nent, involves so many risks and so much capital that only those who 
are familiar with conditions in both worlds can afford to attempt it. 

FUTURES. It is difficult to realize the vast volume of business 
transacted on the Board of Trade and Produce Exchanges of this 
country. To one who hears only of speculation and manipulation, the 
Exchanges seem to be founded for no other purpose than to provide 
facilities for speculation. Speculation is the sensational feature of 
the trade, and the newspapers devote the most space to that class 
of news, for the reason that it is sensational. But speculation is a 
mere incident of the grain and cotton trade, and grew up after the 
exchange had been established for the purpose of bringing buyers and 
sellers of cash property together at one common point. 

As the volume of cash transactions increased and facilities were 
provided for storage of products at market centers, contracting for 
future delivery developed gradually. At first these contracts were 
irregular as to quantity, time of delivery and grade of goods, but they 
slowly assumed uniformity and the Exchanges, recognizing their 
validity and value, regulated them by rules. It was not until early in 
the 6o's that these "future-delivery" contracts became general in the 
grain trade and the Chicago Board of Trade dignified them by adopt- 



FUTURES 



319 



ing rules to govern and enforce them. The system gradually devel- 
oped and brought about wonderful changes in the methods of mer- 
chants and millers. 

Prior to the establishment of trading for future delivery, as now 
practiced on the Chicago Board of Trade, every grain dealer was a 
speculator in cash grain, with all the uncertainties of the markets to 
contend with. Today he is a merchant working on an assured margin 
of profit, by reason of his ability to protect himself by sales for future Secures 
delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade. This is illustrated in a grain 



simple manner. The grain dealer at 



Iowa, buys 10,000 



dealer 



bushels of ear corn in January of the farmers and stores it in his corn 
crib. It will not be fit to shell and ship until the following May. He 
orders his commission merchant on the Chicago Board of Trade to 
sell 10,000 bushels of corn for May delivery. The commission mer- 
chant makes the sale and reports back the prices. The dealer has 
thus secured his profit, although it is five months before he can de- 
liver the corn in Chicago, that length of time being required for the 
corn to cure. lie in turn pays the farmer cash for his corn, who can 
then pay rent on his land and buy machinery for the spring work. 
Now, the dealer has made what the public call a speculative transac- 
tion, viz., a trade for future delivery on the Chicago Board of Trade, 
and yet he is the very opposite of the speculator. Suppose he had not 
sold the corn for May delivery, but had taken all the risk of chances 
in the market for five months, no one would think of calling him a 
speculator, and yet that is exactly what he would be. 

Millers and grain dealers throughout the world trade in "futures" 
in Chicago, in order to avoid speculating in their business, on exactly 

the same theory as the dealer at , Iowa, sells May corn in 

Chicago, against the ear corn in the crib at home. If you can find a 
miller with 1,000 or 10,000 barrels of flour on hand that had not been 
sold, you will find that he has wheat "futures" sold (usually in Chi- 
cago) to the extent of about five bushels a barrel. As soon as he can 
sell the flour he will buy back the "future." He may sell the flour at 
50 cents a barrel less than it cost to grind it and yet he will not lose 
a cent. On the contrary, he will save his manufacturing profit at 10 
to 25 cents a barrel, for his sale of the wheat "future" has protected 
him. Wheat and flour prices move together, and when he sells his 
flour at 50 cents a barrel loss, he at the same time buys back the wheat 
"future" at 10 to 12 cents a bushel profit — the wheat has declined in 
the same proportion as the flour. Or, the miller may reverse this 
operation and buy wheat "futures" and sell flour which he has not on 



Millers 
use this 
method 
of security 



320 



CORN. 



In eyes 

cf law 

futures 

are 

legitimate 



Delivery 
is made 

in lots 
of 5000 

bushels 



hand, to be shipped sixty or ninety days hence. He either receives the 
cash wheat on the "future" when the contract matures, and grinds it 
into flour to fill his sale, or he buys other wheat better suited to his 
requirements and sells out the "future" as fast as he acquires the 
necessary "spot" wheat. In the meantime, wheat prices may change 
25 cents a bushel without disturbing the miller, who, when he pur- 
chased the wheat "future" and sold the flour, had secured his margin 
of profit. Ask any miller why he trades in "future" and he will tell 
you it is done to avoid speculating in his business. 

The grain dealers aiid exporters who carry stocks of grain or make 
sales of grain to be shipped in the future, are in the same position as 
the miller. You will find them constantly buying and selling "fu- 
tures" in order to avoid speculation in their business. The packer 
and provision merchant resort to contracts for future delivery for the 
same purpose. 

All of these transactions in "futures" made by millers, grain deal- 
ers, and packers are the same as the transactions ordinarily known a* 
"speculative transactions," and at the same time they are made in the 
matter of their execution and settlement they are in every way iden- 
tical. If a speculator desires to buy 5,000 bushels of wheat for May 
delivery, he buys it at the same place and in the same manner as 
does the miller who wants the wheat to grind. Both transactions are 
subject to the same rules and customs. Both parties must be pre- 
pared to receive and pay for the property at the maturity of the con- 
tract and, in the eyes of the law. the contract of the speculator is as 
legitimate as that of the miller. 

The trading in futures has been criticised by those ignorant of its 
great aid to agriculture and commerce from the day when the increase 
of yield of farm products in the West and South made it necessary to 
buy and sell for delivery at a future time, in order to facilitate the 
carrying and distributing of the farmers' surplus crops at a minimum 
of cost and risk for the months intervening between harvests. 

Why and How Futures are Settled Without Delivery, The strong- 
est weapon in the hands of those opi:)osc(l to futures has been the 
argument that every purchase and sale for future delivery is not 
finally consummated or settled by the actual delivery of the property 
on the contract at maturity. 

All contracts for future delivery on the Board are made in the 
same manner and are exactly similar as to quantity or unit. Except 
in wheat and flaxseed, where there is a small volume of trade in 
1,000-bushel lots, the unit is 5,000 bushels. Thus, if the broker "A" 



FUTURES. 321 

buys from broker "B" 25,000 bushels of corn for May delivery, he has 
really bought five 5,000-bushel lots, and both parties would so enter 
the transaction on their books. Delivery must be made in lots of 
5,000 bushels and settlement can be effected for 5,000 bushels or 
any number of 5,000 bushel lots up to the total amount of the 
contract. The same holds true in all transactions. When a trade 
of 100,000 bushels is reported, it means twenty lots of 5,000 bushels 
each. A broker may receive orders from five clients at the same 
time to buy May corn. Clients "A" and "B" and "C" order 
10,000 bushels each ; client "D" 15,000 bushels and client "E" 5,000 
bushels, aggregating 50,000 bushels. The broker steps into the corn 
pit and bids for 50,000 bushels, buying it all of one party. He then 
divides the purchase among his clients: "A," "B" and "C" each get 

» > » t> 50,000 

two 5,000-bushcl lots. "D' gets three 5,000-bushel lots and "E" one busbeis 
5,000-bushcl lot. The party of whom the broker bought has really as ten 

1 J 1 • 1 1 i 1 1 • 1-11 11 1 5000 bushel 

sold him ten 5,000-bushcl lots and so enters it on his books; although lots 
at the time the trade was made, it was spoken of as a 50,000-bushel 
trade. This is a feature of the trading which must be clearly under- 
stood by the student before he can grasp the system of settlements. 

All contracts being uniform as to quantity, they are substituted one 
for the other, and members of the Board acting as commission mer- 
chants do not try to preserve the identity of the contracts made for identity of 

-^ ^ ■' . _ ^ contracts not ; 

any particular clients. In place of doing so, and for the privilege of preserved 
substituting similar contracts, they guarantee to their clients the ful- 
fillment of the contracts, a course not usually adopted by agents when 
acting for principals. The right to substitute contracts is the consid- 
eration for the guarantee. 

We will now take five imaginary commission merchants. Brown, 
Jones, Smith, Day and Lee. They all receive and execute orders for 
the purchase and sale of grain for future delivery on the Board of 
Trade. Their clients are millers, exporters, eastern dealers, buyers of 
grain at western points, speculators, and investors. The clients send 
orders from day to day as their business requirements or desire to 
speculate may dictate. Some of these orders are to buy, some to sell. 
We shall assume that they are all in corn for May delivery and that 
the contracts are entered into in January. Brown receives an order 
to buy 5,000 bushels of May corn. Stepping into the corn market or 
pit, he buys the quantity ordered of Jones, one of the other commis- 
sion merchants. If either Brown or Jones elects, there is but one way 
to settle this contract ; that is, by actual delivery by Jones to Brown 
some time in the month of May. Or, if Brown does not sell 5,000 



322 



CORN. 



bushels of May corn, settlement would be impossible, except by Jones 
procuring the actual corn and delivering it to Brown in the month of 
May. In other words, both parties to the contracts must first have 
a purchase and a sale of May corn, and secondly, must consent to a 
settlement before any contracts can be closed, except by delivery. 

But there is a third and more essential condition which must exist 
before the first two are of consequence, and they are not sought nor 
considered until it is discovered that this third condition exists. It 
is the all important reason for settlement without delivery and is the 
mere fact that delivery would be idle and unnecessary. Therefore 
only such contracts for future delivery are settled without delivery of 
the actual grain, as the parties to the contracts may agree to settle 
after having discovered that delivery would be an idle form. 

When Delivery is Unnecessary. When a purchase and sale (there 
must be both a buyer and seller) for future delivery is made on the 
Chicago Board of Trade, it must be made with the intention on the 
part of the purchaser to receive and on the part-of the seller to deliver 
the commodity. Subsequent events may render delivery unnecessary 
and settlement before the maturity of the contract desirable without 
jeopardizing the legality of the contract. But this cannot be foreseen 
and the buyer and seller must calculate to be prepared to receive and 
deliver the cash commodity at maturity of the contract. 

Brown, having bought in January 5,000 bushels of May corn of 
Jones, as previously stated, enters the transaction on his books, and 

Two parties [^ ^j^g usual coursc of business Jones would deliver him the actual 
corn some time in the month of May. But a week later Browm re- 
ceived an order to sell 5,000 bushels of May corn, and stepping into 
the corn pit ofifers the grain for sale, and Jones buys it from him. 
Now, we have Brown and Jones in the position of having bought of 
and sold each other 5,000 bushels of May corn. Brown, who origin- 
ally bought of Jones, has now sold to Jones, and Jones, who originally 
sold to Brown, has now bought of Brown. Suppose it were illegal to 
settle future contracts, except by the delivery of the actual grain, 
where w^ould Brown and Jones be? Which one w^ould make the in- 
itial delivery of the grain? Each would say to the other wdien May 

It is absurd arrived, "Deliver me that 5,000 bushels of corn I have bought of you, 

"to^seii so that I can deliver it back to you and thus settle your sale to and 

gr^in purchase from me and my sale to and purchase from you," and each 

to the other ^^.Qy]^! answer the other, "When you deliver me the corn you have sold 
me, I will deliver it to you." Could a more absurd condition exist in 



FUTURES. 



323 



the business? Yet this is exactly the kind of a transaction that gives 
rise to the criticism that "futures" are settled without delivery. 

Brown and Jones have no trouble in settling this contract. If Jones 
sold the corn to Brown at 45 cents a bushel and subsequently bought 
it of him at 46 cents a bushel, he has a loss in the transaction of i cent 
a bushel, or $50.00, which he pays to Brown immediately and the con- 
tracts involved are settled. 

We will now go one step further and note a more complicated 
settlement, which will involve more than two brokers. 

In the month of January, Brown buys of Jones 5,000 bushels of 
May corn ; on the following day, Jones buys 5,000 bushels of May corn 
of Smith. The purpose of these transactions is that in the month of 
May, Smith will deliver 5,000 bushels of corn to Jones, who in turn 
will deliver it to Brown, thus fulfilling the contracts. But, if in the 
course of business extending over the period between January (when 
the contracts above mentioned were made) and May (when the con- 
tracts mature), it should so happen that Smith should buy 5,000 
bushels of May corn from Brown, the three brokers would be in the 
same position that Brown and Jones were in on the first transaction 
referred to, where each had the corn bought and sold to the other. 
To make this more clear: 

Brown has bought of Jones. 

Jones has bought of Smith. 

Smith has bought of Brown. 
Putting it another way : 

Brown has sold to Smith. 

Smith has sold to Jones. 

Jones has sold to Brown. 

It will be noticed that, no matter how you put these transactions, 
they begin and end with the same party, and it would be the same in 
case any of the brokers delivered corn, for it would come back to him 
who delivered it, after passing through the hands of the other two. 
Assuming, for example, that Smith delivered the 5,000 bushels of corn, 
it would pass from one to another as follows: 

Smith delivered to Jones. 

Jones delivered to Brown. 

Brown delivered to Smith. 

So that Smith would get back the corn and the delivery would 
have accomplished only the settlement of the contracts as among the 
three parties. If each of the three parties received and paid for the 
corn and in turn delivered it out and received a check for it, as they 



Three 
parties 



Each has 
bought 
of the 
other 



Each has 
sold to 
the other 



324 CORN. 

would have to do in this case, and assuming the average price to be 45 
cents, each party would collect and pay out $2,250; in other words, 
they would handle $4,500. So that the aggregate received and paid 
out would he $13,500 to cettle these three transactions in which the 
difference might be a very small sum. But the delivery spoken of 
would not occur for the simple reason that Smith would wait for 
Brown to deliver the corn to him so that he (Smith) could deliver it 
to Jones, while Brown would wait for Jones to deliver the corn to him 
so that he (Brown) could deliver it to Smith. 

It will be seen that delivery on these contracts is not only unneces- 
sary, but also impossible, except by borrowing the cash corn for the 
purpose of going through an idle form. 

Before showing how these trades are finally settled, we will carry 
the illustration a little further. The case of Brown, Jones and Smith 
can be extended so as to involve a large number of brokers. It is 
frequently discovered that as many as twenty brokers are in the same 
position in one transaction as Brown, Jones and Smith were ; that is, 
they must settle without actual delivery, as every one of them has it 
bought and sold and each is waiting for the party he has bought it 
from to deliver it to him. If they should fail to investigate and discover 
the true state of the trades, every one of the twenty brokers would 
default on his contract by reason of their all waiting for an impossible 
or at least, improbable delivery. • 

To escape the possibility of becoming involved in trades that 
would result in default, to facilitate their business by discovering and 
settling these unnecessary contracts, and to collect and pay all differ- 
ences on these closed contracts, every broker in Chicago who trades 
in futures, employs a clerk whose duty it is to watch the transactions 
Where closcly and see that they are settled immediately, in case it develops 

'necessary i j i • i • r i 

I au trades that delivery on the contract is unnecessary for the reasons just 

lor future , i , 

described. 

Every trade for future delivery made on the Chicago Board of 
Trade (unless the seller defaults on the contract, and defaults are 
very rare), is finally settled by the delivery of the commodity con- 
tracted for, except such trades as get into a position that renders deliv 
ery unnecessary, as in the cases already set forth. 

Having noted "when delivery is unnecessary" and settlements are 
effected by the payment of the differences between the contract prices, 
we will now give a short explanation of how deliveries are made ; for 
on all contracts for future delivery, there is an actual delivery (de- 



FUTURES. 



.325 



faults, which arc rare, excepted), unless it develops that delivery is 
unnecessary. 

How Deliveries are Made. Deliveries on cotjtracts for future 
delivery of grain, flaxseed and provisions entered into on the Chicago 
Board of Trade, are made by warehouse receipts for the commodities 
in warehouses declared "regular" by the Board. Deliveries of grain 
and flaxseed are made in lots of 5,000 bushels (except a few in wheat 
and flax in i,ooo-l)ushcl lots),. provisions in lots of 250 packages ^nd 
50,000 pounds. 

All contracts upon which delivery is unnecessary are eliminated as 
fast asthey are discovered, so that wdien the month of delivery arrives, 
it finds only the contracts open upon which delivery must be made. 
Sellers begin to deliver the commodities on the first business day of 
the month at 8:30 A. M., and oftentimes deliveries are very frequent 
throughout the month. 

Warehouse receipts deliverable on the contracts are negotiable and 
great care is necessary to prevent" their loss. If it were not for the 
manner in which the deliveries are made, the parties to the contracts 
would be subjected to great loss and annoyance by reason of lost or 
misplaced warehouse receipts and unnecessary clerical expense. 

Experience and necessity have developed an almost perfect system 
of delivery, which eliminates all danger of loss of warehouse receipts 
and simplifies th€ work. At 8:30 A. M. on the first business day of 
each month, deliveries are made by notice on the Exchange Hall of 
the Board of Trade. Every party having grain, provision, or flaxseed 
contracts open for that month must be represented. Those traders 
having commodities to deliver hold the receipts in their offices, but 
they hand notices to the parties to whom they have made sales, noti- 
fying them to call and pay for the property and get the warehouse 
receipts. The party receiving the notice either holds the notice and 
sends a certified check to the party making the delivery, who then 
turns over the warehouse receipts to him, or if he has a contract (10 
sale with some other member, he pacses the notice by endorsement to 
the third party, who can, in turn, do the same thing; so that a notice 
of delivery may go through twenty-five or thirty hands, until it finally 
reaches a party who, for some reason, desires possession of the com- 
modity. This last party then pays for it and all the intermediate par- 
ties settle by receiving or paying the differences between the con 
tract prices — in other words, the profits and losses in the'-trades. 

This system of delivery saves the paying out and collecting by 
each party of the full value of the commodity delivered, as well as the 



Where de- 
liveries 
are unnec- 
essary 
such 

trades are 
eliminated 
as soon 
as found 



Deliveries 
are made 
8:30 a. m. 
to 9:15 
a. m. on 
first busi- 
ness day 
of each 
month 



CORN 




FUTURES. 327 

passing of the warehouse receipt from office to office. Thus, deHveries 
that would involve immense sums of money and two or three days* 
time are consummated in forty-five minutes by paying for the property 
once. 

After the first delivery day, deliveries can be made by warehouse 
receipts from office to office each morning, but in the afternoon of 
each business day, deliveries are made by notice in the Exchange Hall, 
the same as on the morning of the first business day of the month. 
The delivery notice is a complete description of the receipts and the 
contract on which they are to be delivered. Any person to whom the 
notice is delivered can procure the receipts by holding the notice and 
sending a check for the value of the commodity to the party issuing 
the notice. Every notice is back to the office of the issuer within an 
hour after deliveries close, accompanied by a certified check, and the 
warehouse receipts are surrendered to the party thus paying for them. 

The volume of these deliveries is at times beyond comprehension. 
In making an investigation of one lot of 1,200,000 bushels of wheat, volume 

, r fill . . of such 

sent out by a firm on notice, it was found that the 240 notices ot deuveries 
5,000 bushels each had passed through an average of twenty hands comprehension 
before they finally lodged and were paid. Thus, contracts for 24,000, 
000 bushels of wheat were settled by delivery of this lot of wheat in 
forty-five minutes (the delivery runs from 8:30 to 9:15 A. M.). 

As there were between five and ten millions of bushels of grain 
delivered that morning, the contracts settled by delivery were evi- 
dently between one hundred and two hundred million bushels. If 
that volume of business should be carried from office to office, it 
would have involved much time, labor, expense and delay, all unneces- 
sary. Every person receiving the notice had absolute control of the 
disposition of the warehouse receipts during the time the notice was 
in his hands; for it passes from hand to hand and can be stopped by 
any party who receives it. 

Settlements, and Settlement and Delivery Prices. Contracts set- 
tled for the reason that delivery is unnecessary, must be uniform in 
all respects. If only two parties are involved, the settlement is very 
simple; the one having a loss in the transaction, paj^s it to the other 
who has a profit. But w-hen more than two parties are involved, the 
collecting of profits and payment of losses are more complicated and 
difficult of explanation, although differing not the least in principle. 
The parties having losses pay, and the parties having profits collect 



328 CORN. 

them, and in every settlement, whether it involves two or twenty 
parties, the losses equal the profits. 

To illustrate this, let us use an imaginary settlement involving five 
brokers. The settlement is of 5,000 bushels of May corn and might 
occur any time after trading in that "future" becomes general. 

Brown has sold to Jones at 46 cents. 
Five parties Jon^s has sold to Smith at 44 cents. 

Smith has sold to Day at 47 cents. 

Day has sold to Lee at 43 cents. 

Lee has sold to Brown at 48 cents. 

A little figuring shows that Jones, Day and Brown have respec- 
tively 2 cents, 4 cents, and 2 cents a bushel loss, aggregating 8 cents a 
bushel, in their transactions; while Smith and Lee each have a profit 
— Smith of 3 cents and Lee of 5 cents a bushel, a total of 8 cents a 
bushel, equal to $400 on 5,000 bushels. When it is discovered that 
the trades arc in the position indicated and delivery is unnecessary, 
and all the parties agree to settle the transactions, the next step is to 
transfer the $400 owed by Jones, Day and Brown, to Smith and Lee. 

An extremely simple method in doing this has been in vogue for 

Settlement twenty ycars. Each day a "settlement price," or more properly a "fig- 

is^th^ uring" price is fixed. It has nothing to do with the real settlement of 

average tj^g contracts, beinsT a mere convenience. In settling this 5,000 bushels 

price for ' o o ^ ^ 

the day of May corn, as among the five brokers, the settlement or figuring 
price for the day on which the settlement is made will be used as a 
figuring basis. Taking 45 cents as the settlement price, we get the 
fpllowing result : 

SETTLEMENT 5,000 BUSHELS MAY CORN. 
SETTLEMENT PRICE 45 CENTS. 

Sales. I Loss. j " Profit. 



Brown | j 

to Jones at 46 cents | Jones 2 cents per bushel j 

to Smith at 44 " I | Smith 3 cents per bushel 

to Day at 47 " j Day 4 " per bushel I 

to Lee at 43 " J | Lee 5 " per bushel 

to Brown at 48 " (Brown 2 " per bushel | 

Total I 8 cents per bushel | 8 cents per bushel 
j ($400.00) I $400.00 

You will notice that in the case of Day, who has a loss of 4 cents 
a bushel ($200.00) to pay, he has the corn bought of Smith, who has 
a profit of 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) to collect ; and he (Day) has sold 
it to Lee, who has a profit of 5 cents a bushel ($250.00) to collect, and 



systemat.caily 



FUTURES. 329 

the question would arise immediately as to which of these parties 
Day should pay his $200.00 loss to, if it were not for the figuring price. 
Day's clerk figures that having bought the corn of Smith at 47 cents 
and sold it to Lee at 43 cents, he must settle on a basis of 45 cents 
with each, which he does by paying Smith down to 45 cents, which 
would be 2 cents a bushel ($100.00), and paying Lee up to 45 cents, 
or 2 cents a bushel ($100.00). Thus Day has paid his loss direct to 
the parties to the contracts with whom he had the trades. All the 
other parties to the contracts pay and collect to this common price, 
so that each pays his whole loss or collects his whole profit in a sys- i^'® 
tematic and simple manner. are^^n 

this way 

Jones, who has bought of Brown at 46 cents and sold to Smith at 44 g^stem^t 
cents, pays each to 45 cents, i cent a bushel in both instances. Brown, 
who has sold at 46 cents to Jones and bought at 48 cents of Lee, pays 
Lee 3 cents a bushel ($150.00) and collects i cent ($50.00) of Jones. 
So that each party settles with the parties with whom he originally 
made the transactions, on the basis of an imaginary figure which is 
every day fixed at about the average price for the day. 

The using of the "settlement" or "figuring" price has the effect of 
enabling each party to the settlement to settle direct with the two 
parties with whom he has made the transactions, on the same basis 
that he would settle with them in case of a settlement wherein only 
two parties were involved. It simply reduces the transactions to the 
same basis as a trade wherein the purchaser had sold back to the 
seller, at the "settlement" price and the seller has bought back of the 
purchaser at the "settlement" price. In other words, it works out the 
same as if Jones, who had bought it of Brown at 46 cents sold it back 
to him at 45 cents and paid his loss of i cent a bushel ($50) to Brown, 
and then having sold it to Smith at 44 cents bought it back of him 
(Smith) at 46 cents, another loss to Jones of i cent a bushel ($50). 
which he pays to Smith, and so through the whole list of persons in- 
terested in the settlement as follows: 

Brown sold to Jones at 46 cents. . . ) ^^^^^^^ collects i cent of Tones. 
Jones sold to Brown at 45 cents. . . \ 

Jones sold to Smith at 44 cents. . . ) ^^^-^^ collects i cent of Jones. 
Smith sold to Jones at 45 cents j 

Smith sold to bay at 47 cents \ ^ collects 2 cents of Dav 

Day sold to Smith at 45 cents ) ^^^^^ collects 2 cents ot uay . 

Day sold to Lee at 43 cents j L^e collects 2 cents of Day. 

Lee sold to Day at 45 cents ) 

Lee sold to Brown at 48 cents | Lee collects 3 cents of Brown. 

Brown sold to Lee at 45 cents ) 



■:■■'> CORN. 

Loss 
So lliat P.roun. whose loss is 2 cents a l)usheK has paid Lee 

3 cents loss and collected of Jones i cent Net 2c 

Jones, whose loss is 2 cents a bushel, pays i cent to Brown 

and I cent to Smith Net 2c 

Day, whose loss is 4 cents, pays 2, cents to Smith and 2 

cents to Lee Net 4c 

Total 8c per bu. 

It will be noticed that Smith and Lee have collected respectively 
3 cents a bushel ($150.00) and 5 cents a bushel ($250.00) direct from 
the parties with whom they had the trades, although in no case is the 
loss of any one of the debtors the same as the profit of either Smith 
or Lee. In every case in which a settlement is made in place of an 
unnecessary delivery — and no agreement can be made except on that 
basis — the result will always be the same, the losses equalizing the 
gains. 

Delivery Price. Deliveries on contracts, when the warehouse re- 
on Contract ^^^'P^^ '^^^ passcd from office to office, are paid for at the price of the 
™Yt CO r^^t* contract as originally made between the brokers. When delivery is 
price or affcctcd by the "delivery" notice, as explained heretofore, it is made 
price at a "delivery" price fixed each da}^ as in the case of the "settlement" 
jirice, and the commodity is figured, for the purpose of delivery, at 
that price. The party receiving the commodity pays for it, not at tile 
price at which he bought it, but at the "delivery" price. If the "deliv- 
ery" price is less than the price of the contract on which he received 
it, he pays the difference to the party from whom he bought, but if it 
(the delivery price) is in excess of the purchase price, he collects the 
excess or difference from the party from whom he has bought it. This 
plan is followed by each party who received and delivered out the 
"delivery" notice ; they use the deliver}'^ price as a figuring price and 
pay the difference in exactly the same manner as they would when 
using the "setllcnient" ])rice in case of settlenK-nt without dcliverv. 

Even the party sending out the notice receives payment at the 
delivery price and he collects of or pays to the person to whom his 
sale was made and who first received the "delivery" notice from him, 
the difference between this contract price and the "delivery" price. The 
"delivery" notice may be passed through any number of brokers and 
the contracts settled at the delivery price. The following morning. 
the brokers pay and collect the differences between the price at which 
ihey originally made the purchase and sale and the "delivery" price. 

The "delivery" price is like the "settlement" price, a mere figuring 



BUCKET SHOPS. 331 

basis for the convenience of the traders. Neither has the slightest rela- 
tion to the real transaction, or its settlement or delivery ; but after 
settlement is agreed to, or delivery made, they furnish a simple, sys 
tematic, economic and uniform basis for the payment of balances due 
to or payable by the brokers, without changing the result one iota. If 
there were neither "settlement" nor "delivery" prices fixed, the busi- 
ness would be handled exactly the same as it now is, with the excep- 
tion that the payments of balances would have to be made in a cum 
bersome and unsatisfactory manner. 

BUCKET SHOPS 

A bucket shop is an establishment nominally and ostensibly for the 
transaction of grain, cotton, or stock exchange business. This trans- ^"a^^*^ ^^°^ 
action is a mere pretense. The bucket shop exercises no commercial P"*^°se 
function and is devoid of every commercial feature. The proprietor 
with or without the consent of the patron, takes one side of every 
deal that is made in his place, the patron taking the other. No article 
is bought or sold in the public market and charges or commissions are 
exacted for no services rendered. The market quotations posted in 
an up-to-date bucket shop are similar to those posted in a legitimate 
broker's office. The broker posts them for the purpose of showing 
what the market has been on the exchange, as a matter of information. 
The bucket-shop keeper posts them as the terms upon which its Difference 
patrons place their bets. The margins deposited with bucket shop broker\nd 
proprietors by the patrons, are nothing but the patrons' stakes to the ^.^^^^^ ^^°^ 
wager, and are appropriated by the proprietor when the fluctuations 
of the price on the exchange, whose quotations are the basis of the 
bet, reach the limit of the deposit. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Much of this chapter has been taken 
from "Gold Bricks of Speculation," by John Hill, Jr. His discussion 
of "Futures" could not be improved with the extent of our knowledge. 
We wish here to express our appreciation of the very clear and force- 
ful way in which Mr. Hill describes the operations in the trading. 

Secretary George F. Stone and President Hiram Sager, of the 
Chicago Board of Trade, have taken special pains to settle points of 
technicality. 

Rumsey and Company and E. W. Wagner and Company were 
courteous in answering in(|uiries. 

Secretary E. J. ^fcVann kindly outlined the History and Develop- 
ment of the Grain Exchange of Omaha. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Gold Bricks of Speculation, By John Hill, Jr. 

Speculation Not a Fine Art, By E. W. Wagner. 

Reports of the Boards of Trade of the several principal markets. 



CHAPTER XIV 

THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN 

The Commercial Products of Corn May Be Classified as Follows; 

1. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL. 

A. By mechanical and milling methods. 

B. By mechanical and chemical processes. 

C. By fermentation. 

2. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE COB. 

3. THOSE DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF. 

A. From the stalk. 

B. From the leaves. 

C. From the husks. 

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE KERNEL 

BY MECHANICAL AND MILLING MEANS.— Corn Meal. 
The early American mill stone produced a coarse meal from corn. 
This form of meal contained hull, endosperm and germ. Rancidity 
often resulted from the presence of an excess of oil. Hence, as soon 

Germ and ,.,,.. . . 

hull are as the milling 01 corn meal ior commercial purposes was developed, 

removed ,,...■" ^ , r •,• . 

from the chmination 01 the germ was found necessary to facilitate storing 

modern .... t i • ^ ,, , ■, ■ , 

corn meal and Shipping. In this process, heavy rollers are used which are set 
far enough apart to allow a kernel to pass throup-h flatwise. Very 
sharj). hut slight steel projections neatly peel the germ from the 
kernel, which has previously been softened and hulled. From the 
rollers, the entire mass is passed into water. The germs rise and are 
taken off and thoroughly dried. The remainder of the kernel is 
ground into different grades of corn meal. The classification of corn 
meal is made according to color, white or yellow; and graded by its 
structure into coarse, medium and fine. 

Some companies at the present time, put out a "whole meal" during 

?om'me°aj ^^^^ winter months for a select trade and where it is to be consumed 
shortly after being manufactured. Very few people understand the 



CORN MEAL. 



333 



real value of this form of meal as compared with the commercial form 
commonly found upon the market. Whole corn meal includes the 
germ, which contains 82 per cent of the entire oil content of the ker- 
nel, thus adding considerably to the food value. 

Corn Meal as a Food. Corn or maize meal is prepared as food in 
many diflercnt ways. In Ireland, it is made into a sort of porridge 
called "stirabout," or in the more expressive phraseology of America, 
"mush." In Northern Italy and South Tyrol it is prepared in a sim- 
ilar way, but with the addition of cheese and other ingredients. Maize 
meal or corn meal is made as above stated, by removing the hull and 
germ. A white and yellow meal is prepared, the former in greater 
(luantities because its color is more attractive to the purchaser. In 
food value, however, there is no difference. Fine maize meal is more 
gritty than wheat flour, but when mixed with the latter, its presence 
can hardly be detected. The comparative cheapness of maize flour is 
an inducement to millers to adulterate wheat flour with it, and this is 
already being done to some extent in America and France. Flour so 
adulterated yields fewer loaves than an equal quantity of pure wheat 
flour, and the bread produced is more moist than wheat bread and has 
a tendency to be sodden. An addition of 10 per cent of maize flour 
is calculated to mean a reduction of five loaves on the sack. Owing 
to the absence of gluten, this meal cannot be used to make ordinary 
bread, but it is often baked into cakes of various sorts. The "johnny" 
(corruption of journey) cakes of North America are imleavened and 
are made of a rather coarse maize meal. Similar cakes constitute the 
"tortilla" of South America and Mexico. The following is the com- 
position of the "johnny" cakes, analysis by Atwater and Wood: 

Water 38.0 per cent. 

Proteid 8.5 " 

Fat 2.7 ;; 

Carbohydrates 47-3 

Mineral Matter 3-5 

Comparing this with white bread, we find the nutritive value to 
be greater in the case of the "johnny" cake. 

An anlysis of wheat bread by Dr. Robert Hutchinson, of the Lon- 
don Hospital, is as follows: 

Water 40.0 per cent. 

Proteid 6.5 " 

Fat 10 " 

Starch, Sugar and Dextrine 51.2 

Cellulose 3 ]^ 

Mineral Matter 10 



Used to 
adulterate 
wheat 
flour 



Composi- 
tion of 
"Johnny" 
cake 



766,880 

barrels 

rxpoited 

In 1907 



334 CORN. 

Sometimes the maize meal is leavened with yeast and subsequently 
baked in iron vessels. In this form, it is known as "pone." In Ire- 
land, baking powder is used or the maize meal is mixed with flour and 
so converted into loaves. One-third of its weight of good flour is 
sufficient to enable fine maize meal to form good loaves. The color 
of the bread is always rather dark, however, even if the proportion of 
wheat flour be increased to one-half. 

Exportation. Our export trade in corn meal amounts to a great 
deal at the present time. During the ten years from 1898 to and in- 
cluding 1907, the following amounts with values appended, were 
shipped to foreign markets : 

Year. Barrels of Meal. Value. 

1898 827,651 $1,766,068 

1899 791 ,488 1,775,868 

1900 943,782 2,148,410 

1901 896,877 2,065,432 

1902 348,034 1,046,643 

1903 451.506 1,382,127 

1904 590,774 1,691,669 

1905 371,565 1,113,295 

1906 543794 1,623,397 

1907 766,880 2,313,410 

For the year 1904, the following countries were the chief importers 
of corn meal manufactured in the United States according to the 
Government Statistical Report on Commerce and Navigation for that 
year. 

The total number of barrels exported to all foreign countries for 
1904 was 590.774. Of this, British Africa took 32.79 per cent; West 
Indies, not including Porto Rico, 27.3 per cent; the United King- 
dom, 21.32 per cent; the Dominion of Canada, including Labrador 
and Xew Foundland, 9.675 per cent. 

The above figures give an idea of the countries using most of the 
export corn meal. It may seem strange that so much goes to South 
Africa. It may be interesting to know, in this connection, that plahi 
corn cake constitutes the chief food of the South African Kaffirs em- 
ployed in the African mines. 

Mining By-Products. The ])y-pro(lucts from this system of milling, 
consist of the germs and hulls. The larger manufacturers press the 
oil out of the germ and then rcll the "germ-oil meal" for stock feed. 
But, as the majority of corn meal mills are in the smaller towns in 



HOMINY— CEREALINE— SAMP. 



535 



the western part of the corn belt, this process is little practiced. A 
mixture of tlie iui])rcsse(i ^i;erm meal with one-third its weii^ht in whole 
cats, is fast bccuniint; a popular horse feed with draymen and breed- 
ers. The combination of the corn hulls with the germs makes an 
inexpensive stock food. 

During the year 1904, 14,014,885 pounds of corn-oil cake in the 
form of large pressed slabs were exported to European markets, the 
total value of which amounted to $169,921.00. Of the total number 
01 pounds exi)orted, Belgium took 55,000 pounds ; France 9,379,685 
pounds; Germany 2.105,000 pounds; Netherlands 1,166,000 pounds; 
Sweden and. Norway 950,200 pounds; United Kingdom 329,000 
pounds; and the Dominion of Canada (Briti:-h Columbia) 30,000 
pounds. 

Hominy, Cerealine and Samp. The first of these, or whole lye 
hominy, is generally put out as the whole kernels minus the hull. It 
is treated with a solution of alkali, which serves to loosen the coat of 
the kernel. When the hull or coat has been removed, the remainder 
of the kernel, including the endosperm and germ, is thoroughly 
washed to rid it of the alkali which was used to loosen the hull and 
to take out a large per cent of the oil. 

Tn the preparation of whole lye hominy, a choice white variety of 
corn is dcmandeil because the white corn makes an attractive and 
more desirable dish. Hominy mills often pay from one to three cents 
per buslicl more for choice white corn of a hard, flinty texture. Soft, 
immature, starchy, or discolored corn is not used by hominy mills. 

Cerealine and samji. which are preparations of corn to be classed 
as hominv, are made from the hard, horny portions of the kernel. 
For the manufacture of these products, the manufacturers demand a 
hard, flinty, long-kerneled white corn, as this gives the desired color, 
and the large kernel will usually yield a larger percentage of the horny 
portion. Starchy, immature, or soft corn is not desired at any price. 
Hominy mills are willing to pay a premium of from three to five cents 
for the most desirable corn. Mixed colors in corn are not wanted. 

The process of manufacturing consists, first, in running the shelled 
corn between rollers so that it is cracked open. It is then rolled and 
rubbed by means of machinery in order to remove the germs and the 
white, starchy portions. In the whole-lye hominy, the germ is not 
removed, but the treatment with the alkali and the heating to a high 
temperature prevents the oil which reinains in the kernel from becom- 
ing rancid. Since the cerealine and samp receive no alkaline treat- 
ment, the germ must be removed mechanically. 



14,014,885 
pounds of 
corn-oil 
cake 
exported 
In 1904 



In hominy 
the hull 
is removed 



White 

variety 

used 



Immature 
and soft 
corn 
undesirable 



Corn is 

first 

cracked 



336 CORN 

Germ is 



removed The chemical composition of hominy and cercaHne as given by Dr. 
Robert Hutchinson, is as follows: 



Water 

Proteid 

Fat 

Carbohydrates 
Mineral Matter 



Hominy 


Cerealine 


11.9 Per cent 


10.6 Per ceui 


8.2 


9.4 


0.6 


1.0 


78.9 


78.6 


0.4 


0.4 



Both of the preparations above discussed are of a high nutritive 
value and admirably adapted for making puddings, etc. In this capac- 
ity, it is used considerably in the Orient. In our own country, it is 
usually served by cooking in milk, much the same as sweet corn. 

Almost Corn Flour, Maizena, Oswego. Corn flour, maizena and oswego 
starch are prepared from maize by washing away the proteid and fat b}' 
means of dilute alkaline solutions, so that little but starch is left. 
Church states that corn flour contains only i8 grains of proteid in 
every pound, and a sample of "Brown and Ralston's" corn flour, ac- 
cording to Dr. Robert Hutchinson, contained but a mere trace of 
nitrogen in the form of proteid. 

The following is an analysis of maizena, as given by Klemperer in 
Leyden's "Handbuch der Ernahrung Sterapie," page 298: 

Water 14.3 per cent. 

Proteid . .■ 5 " 

Carbohydrates 84.9 " 

Mineral Matter 3 

These preparations must therefore be regarded simply as agree 
able forms of starch, well adapted for food, provided they are taken 
along with some proteid and fat carrier, such as eggs or fatty meats. 
Such starchy preparations, however, cannot be considered as econom- 
ical, no matter what the source, because they are a very unbalanced 
ration. 

Maize, as we have considered it in any of the forms discussed, is a 
dige'sted '^'l?^^y nutritive cereal. It also has the added advantage of being very 
well digested in the human body. Experiments show that 90 per cent 
of its dry matter is absorbed, as compared with 82 per cent in the case 
of wheat. Of the protein of maize, but 19.2 per cent escapes absorp- 
tion ; in wheat, about 20 per cent is lost. 

Maize is an economical food. It has been calculated that when 
maize and wheat are both selling at the same price per bushel, the 

Economical ^ r i- . -i i • , • < . , 

food same amount of digestible matter in each is purchased for the same 
expenditure of money. In wheat, however, there would be 23^ pounds 



CORN CRISP. 



337 



more protein, and in maize 23^ pounds more carbohydrates. The fuel 
value in each case is almost precisely the same.* 

In view of the above facts and the growing scarcity of wheat, it a food 
behooves the lower classes of our country and the hordes of Europe lower 
to adapt themselves to the use of this cheaper and simpler form of 
food stuff. 

Corn Crisp, Corn Flakes. Another corn product, commonly called 
■'Corn Crisp" or "Corn Flakes" is made from white corn grits, which 
are first seast)ned with sugar and salt. They are then steam-cooked, 
dried, and passed through powerful rollers which flake each grit. 
Tiiese flaked grits are placed in an oven where they are toasted. The 
method of serving is common to all. 



A high 
grade 



Corn which is used for this purpose is usually not of a high grade. 
It is more generally of a No. 3, or even No. 4 grade. Corn Flakes are 
very bulky as put up for commercial consumption, and represent jfgu°ijL 
rather an exi)ensive article of diet. They do, however, contain con- «sed 
sclerable nutriment in the form of carbohydrates, although very low 
percentage of ash and protein. 

One of the most extensive manufacturing plants in the country, 
engaged in the manufacture of this product, is operated at Quincy, 
Illinois, by the Postum Cereal Company, Limited, of Battle Creek 
Michigan. This plant annually utilizes 42,000,000 pounds of corn. 
The type of corn desired is a white, flinty variety. No by-products 
are put out for stock feeders, as in the case of the starch factories. The 
outlet for this corn product is found chiefly in the central and western 
states. The export trade which has been lately established is princi- 
pally with Great Britain. The amount exported at the present time 
is inconsiderable. 




(By courtesy of Iowa State College.) Fig. 123. 

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF CORN. 
*U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 50. 



338 CORN. 

CHEMICAL AND MECHANICAL PROCESSES. Taking up 

Separated the Separation of the i^i^rain into its chfferent by-products, we find that 

thiee the first step in this procchs is the sci)aration of the kernel into three 

parts; the outer covering t»r bran, the germ, and the solid portion, 

made up of the starch and gluten. 

The corn, which is purchased in the shelled form, is first cleaned 
and fanned to remove refuse matter and then steeped in a warm solu- 
oerms tioH of sulphurous acid which dissolves the soluble, glutenous matter, 
""""top thereby, to a certain extent, freeing the germ and making the starch 
and insoluble gluten mass chalky and easy to grind. From this steep- 
ing process, the corn is run through the mills which simply tear u 
apart, thus liberating the germ from the rest of the mass. This mass 
is then run into a separator in which the mixture is kept at a certain 
density, due to the free starch held in suspension. Owing to the 
density of this mixture, the germs float to the top and are skimmed 
off. The remainder of the mass, being heavy, sinks to the bottom 
and is drawn off from that point. From there, it goes to fine mills 
which complete the grinding. 

This mass, which consists of pulverized starch, gluten, and fiber, 
is then sieved over silk, and the fiber thus separated is kept at hand, 
si^eTout s^^'aiting the addition of pure gluten. The mixture which goes through 
silk sieves ^'^^ ^'^^ '^ ^^"^ ^° ^°"S runways, and on these the starch settles ; 
whereas, the gluten, due to its lighter specific gravity, floats off. This 
gluten, plus the fiber, plus what is called "steepwater," which is the 
dry material dissolved from the corn in the original steeping process, 
constitutes our commercial gluten feed. 
Gluten The gluten which is first separated contains some starch and is 
again passed over the starch tables and a second grade of starch ob 
tained. The gluten, after passing through powerful presses, which 
remove most of the water, is then dried and put on the market as 
"gluten meal," which sells for about $38 per ton. 

Most of the gluten meal and the corn bran, as indicated in a pre- 
ceding paragraph, are mixed and ground together in about the pro- 
portion in which they occur in the grain, being marketed in this form 
as gluten feed at from $19 to $25.50 per ton.* 

The germs being dried out and finely ground, are steamed and the 

oil extracted by pressure, about 90 per cent being removed. By treat- 

isprTssed i'lg the germs with naptha, a larger per cent of oil is drawn out, but 

the germ meal remaining, is less palatable for stock. After being 

allowed to settle, the oil is drawn off into barrels. Sometimes it is 

*Cnrn Products Mfg. Co., .Tiilj' ?7, 1908. 






CORN STARCH. 



539 



filtered. This oil sells for from 4 to 5 cents per pound. It is used for 
manufacturing paint, for lubricating oil, and for making rubber. This 
rubber, produced by vulcanizing the oil, is of a coarse texture and 
mixes readily with India rubber, being useful where wearing qualities 
rather than elasticity are required. Sole rubber, buffers, and solid 
rubber buggy tires, arc made chiefly of the rubber from corn. Light- 
houses have been successfully lighted with corn oil. A refined qual- 
ity of corn oil is used in place of olive oil for salad dressing and pre- 
serving. Much corn oil is exported annually to those countries which 
manufacture olive oil. In 1906, 3,833,251 gallons of corn oil, valued at 
$1,177,206, were exported from the United States. 

The extracted germs are marketed in the form of thin slabs, known corn 
to the trade as "corn oil cake," or are ground and sold as "germ oil 
meal." Exportation of this product in 1906 amounted to 48,420,942 
pounds, valued at $605,346.00. Great Britain and Germany are the 
exclusive purchasers of corn oil cake, the breeders of the Islands 
relying upon it almost entirely as a concentrate. In the American 
market, germ oil meal sells for from $18.50 to $25 per ton, its value as a 
feed being less than that of linseed oil meal. Corn bran, after being 
subjected to a thorough washing to remove the starch, is dried, and if 
not mixed with gluten meal, sold as a separate product at from $15 
to $22 per Um. It is bought by feeders and mixed with other heavy 
concentrates to lighten the rations. 

The amount of the above products which a bushel of shelled corn 
will produce is about as follows: 

Starch 36 pounds. 

Gluten meal 7 

Corn bran 5 

Germ oil meal 2.7 

Corn oil i -8 

From the "green starch." as it first comes from the settling troughs 
is made a number of other products. Dextrin, which is formed by starch 
heating starch to 280 degrees Fahrenheit in the presence of dilute °^^ 
nitric acid, is used extensively in the manufacture of paste and muci- 
lage. Fine fabric, paper box, and glue manufacturers make large use 
of different kinds of dextrin. The postage and revenue stamps of the 
United States government derive their adhesive power from this corn 
product. A granulated gum which competes strongly on the market 
with gum arabic, is manufactured from dextrin. 

For converting starch into glucose, dilute hydro-chloric acid is 



340 



CORN. 



now very generally used, although for certain products, sulphuric 
acid in mixture with a limited amount of nitric acid is used. The 
ch^iSged operation is conducted in a steam heated, closed copper converter, 
to glucose yj^jj^j. ^ pressure of 30 to 40 pounds per square inch. High pressure 
reduces the amount of acid and length of time required. Syrupy 
glucose can be produced in from ten to thirty minutes by such a 
process, but solid starch sugar requires a longer time. As the syrupy 
liquid comes from the converter, the sulphuric acid is neutralized with 
chalk or marble dust and the hydrochloric acid with soda. 

"Mixing Glucose" or grape sugar is the largest single product de- 
rived from starch conversion. Pure glucose syrup has little flavor 
and is but one-half as sweet to the taste as beet or cane syrup. Hence. 
10 per cent or more of the latter are blended with the former, the 
syrup result being what is known as "Korn King Syrup" or "Karo," or 
products of a similar nature known by different names. Corn syrup 
and "70" and "80" sugars sell for 234 cents per pound. Jelly glucose is 
the basis for manufactured jellies, the flavoring being the evaporated 
juices of different fruits. Fancy fruit preserves are put up in glucose, 
preserved Apothecaries and soft drink dispensers use glucose very extensively 

in glucose . ^ b j j 

in compounding. Four kinds of crystallized glucose are made into cake 
frostings and other delicacies by bakers and confectioners. Candy 
factories annually utilize carloads of the crude glucose. Grape sugar 
is only two-thirds as sweet as cane sugar, but because it costs less 
an anhydrous kind is used by brewers to increase the alcohol content 
of beer. Cheaper grape sugar plays a part in the tanning of leather. 
^89.655,011 pounds of grape sugar valued at $3,489,192, were exported 
from the United States in 1906. This product even enters Europe and 
the territory where the sugar beet is extensively grown. 

Corn starch has long been a well known product in the American 

home. In one form or another 66,574.881 pounds of starch valued at 

lorn starch $^'490-797 Were exported from the United States in 1906. Laundry 

starch is now made largely from corn, potato starch being seldom 

used for such purposes. 

Pearl starch is used by cotton and paper manufacturers in stiffen- 
ing. A refined product is bought by the baking powder companies. 
The commercial grades of pearl and powdered starch sell for about 
2 1-4 cents per pound. 

Textn" Flourine, a corn flour, consisting principally of starch, is used to 

™^^* a limited degree as an admixture to bolted wheat flour, with no detri- 
mental effect. Textile mills run colors in some fabrics with starch 



FERMENTATION PRODUCTS. 



341 



after it has been freed of all trace of acid. A limited amount of 
dried starch and sugar feed, together with starch feed (wet), are 
the principal by-products in the immediate conversion and refining 
of starch. 

For the manufacture of the products discussed, with the exception 
of hominy, the companies generally buy No. 3 and No. 4 corn — more 
often the latter. We may safely say that these companies furnish 
a means of handling millions of dollars worth of corn that would have 
been almost valueless upon the market for any other purpose. The 
Corn Products Manufacturing Company of Chicago, alone, handle 
from thirty-five to forty millions of bushels of No. 3 and No. 4 corn 
annually. 

FERMENTATION PRODUCTS. The corn is first cleaned by 
screening and fanning and then run between rollers and crushed. The 
hulls and germs having been removed, the remaining portion of the Three steps ' 

, . ,' . , , r 1 11 • 11 1 1 ill making 

corn, which consists largely of starch and gluten, is ground and cooked alcohol 
in large tanks to dissolve the sta^rch. - 

It is then taken to the fermenting tanks where about 10 per cent 
of barley malt and yeast are added, with 40 gallons of water per bush- 
el of grain. The mass is allowed to ferment. The starch is first con- 
verted to sugar by the action of the enzymes in the malt, and then 
the sugar is converted to alcohol. 

The liquid portion, consisting of water and alcohol, is drawn oflf 
and heated in large evaporating tanks. The alcohol, having a lower 
boiling point than water, is driven oflF first. It is then condensed by 
directing it over coils filled with cold water. 

The residue left in the fermenting tanks, after being washed to re- 
move all the alcohol, is taken to powerful presses and as much as pos- 
sible of the liquid matter is removed. This liquid portion is used by ffs^yu^fy"** 
cattle feeders, who frequently have large feeding establishments lo- slop 
cated near the distillery. The cattle do best when stanchioned all the 
time. In front of each row of cattle runs a long trough in which the 
distillery slop is placed. The cattle drink large quantities of the slop, 
which, with the exception of a very few pounds of hay to lessen the 
scouring effect of the slop, constitutes their only feed. "Inasmuch as 
a bushel of Indian corn weighs 56 pounds, the total weight of ferment- 
able matter therein, in round numbers, is 39 pounds. The weight of 
the alcohol which is produced under the best conditions is little less 
than one-half of the fermentable matter. Therefore the total weight 
of alcohol which would be yielded by a bushel of average Indian corn 
would be, in round numbers, about 19 pounds. The weight of a gal- 



?A2 



CORN. 



Ion of 95 per cent alcohol is nearly 7 pounds. Hence, i bushel of corn 
would produce 2.7 gallons. 

"If the average price of Indian corn is placed, in round numbers, 
cost of at 40 cents a bushel, the cost of the raw material— that is, of the Indian 
denauSied corn— for manufacturing 95 per cent industrial alcohol is about 15 
aicoiioi (,^.„ts a gallon. To this must be added the cost of manufacture, stor- 
age, etc., which is perhaps as much more, making the estimated actual 
cost of industrial alcohol of 95 per cent strength made from Indian 
corn about 30 cents per gallon. If to this be added the profits of the 
manufacturer and dealer, it appears that under the conditions cited, 
industrial alcohol, untaxed, should be sold for about 40 cents per 
gallon."* 

Distilled spirits from corn enters into the manufacture of smoke- 
less powder. Fusel-oil (amy! alcohol) forms a part of Bourbon whis- 
ky. American perfumes and Cologne are based on corn alcohol as a 
solvent for the aromatic compounds introduced. 

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE COB 

About the most valueless thing on the farm, so far as manurial 
value is concerned, is the corn cob in its cob state. In parts of Iowa, 
where the corn is shelled on a commercial scale, the cobs are hauled 
to the fields to be used as a fertilizer and for the addition of humus. 
Furthermore, it is claimed that they are valuable as a soil holder and 
cOnserver of moisture. The most value may be obtained by burning 
them as a summer fuel. One ton of corn cobs is worth about one- 
third as much as a ton of dry, hard, wood. Their cost, of course, 
depends upon the scarcity of wood and coal and the amount of corn 
grown. As a manurial product, they are valuable chiefly for the 
potash and phosphorous they contain. Chemical analyses show corn- 
cob ash to consist of about 50 per cent of potash (K2O). 

In i)arts of Missouri, chiefly in the vicinity of St. Louis, there is 
a great demand for corn cobs to be manufactured into the famous 
"Missouri Meerschaum" pipes. Near \\'ashington, IMissouri a very 
large type of corn is grown, which has cobs that may be easily utilized 
by the manufacturing plants. The firm of Hirschl and Bendheim, lo- 
cated at St. Louis, is probably the largest concern doing that kind of 
business in the L'^^nited States. They pay about $25 per thousand 
pounds for selected cobs. According to the above firm, the output of 
cob pipes for one year in the United States amounts to about half a 
million dollars. The export trade of this product, which is chiefly 
with England and her possessions, amounts to very little. 

♦Farmers' Bulletin 268. 



One tou 

of cobs 

equals as 

fuel 

one-third 

ton of 

hard wood 



Missouri 

the borne 

of the 

cob pipe 



"Corn 
down" 



PRODUCTS FROM STALK AND LEAVES. 34:5 

"Corn Down," which is secured by chaffing the cob in the manu- 
facture of cob pip^s, and in cleaning out the shelled corn used in the 
various mills, is used in upholstering and in padding mattresses. 

PRODUCTS DERIVED FROM THE PLANT ITSELF 

FROM THE STALK. A good quality of paper is produced from 
corn stalks at a cost of $25 to $26 a ton. Paper from wood pulp or rags st°/i^ig 
costs from $66 to $75 a ton. Over $100,000 has been spent in the per- depithed 
fection of machinery for the handling of this material. A recently pat- 
ented threshing machine separates the stalks from the leaves, delivers 
the stalks bound in bundles, ready for shipment, and the remainder 
of the plant into the barn ready for stock. The stalks are sent to a 
depithing plant, where the casing of the stalk is removed, leaving the 
soft ])ith ready to be rolled into ordinary paper. The coarser pith is 
manufactured into stiff box-board. 

The New Corn Product. The Naval Department of the United 
States Government has conducted extensive experiments with corn Pith as 
pith for use in vessels, and the results have been so satisfactory that for war 
it has been adopted and specified for use in the construction of all new 
vessels. A number of European nations, also, have adopted it, and 
others have commissions for the investigation of the material, looking 
to its adoption. 

This extensive use of corn pith means a market for a product 
which has been almost entirely wasted heretofore. After the pith has 
been removed, the shell or the balance of the stalk is ground up into 
a sort of meal known as the "New Corn Product." While this is per- 
haps of little value to the Iowa corn grower, yet it is of value to the 
manufacturers engaged in the extraction of the pith used in the man- 
ufacturing of ships. Immense quantities of corn stalks are used to 
secure the pith for one battleship. 

By digesting cellulose in nitric acid, or a mixture of nitric and sul- 
phuric acids, a nitrate is formed commonly known as guncotton. Ni- 
tro-glycerin and this guncotton form smokeless gun powder. Corn 
stalks are rapidly becoming an important source of the cellulose used 
in these operations. Pyroxylin varnish, a liquid by-product in the 
manufacture of cellulose, has many practical uses. 

FROM THE LEAVES. The leaves, outer shell of the stalk, and 
other refuse remaining from the manufacture of cellulose, are ground 
finely and sold as stock feed. Tests at the Maryland Experiment Sta- 
tion proved it to be higher in digestible nutrients than corn fodder. A digestible 
like product, except that it is the by-product of the paper factory, is 
also put upon the market, the coarser parts being baled. 



344 



CORN. 



Stock foods of cliflFcrcnt nutritive values result from the use of the 
by-products of the stalk and leaves. After grinding this refuse mat- 
ter very finely, it is mixed with dried blood, molasses, distillery and 
glucose by-products, sugar beet pulp, and apple pomace. 

FROM THE HUSKS. Corn husks furnish packing for horse col- 
lars and are used in the manufacture of cheap hats in the South. Coarse 
door mats of lasting quality are made in the North. Husk ticks for 
beds are used in bunk houses by construction companies, when con- 
tracts happen to be in the corn growing districts. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 

\\'e wish especially to express our appreciation of the assistance 
rendered by G. M. Moflfett of the Corn Products Manufacturing Co., 
of Chicago. 

\'an Camp Packing Co., of Indianapolis has furnished much data 
in regard to hominy manufacture. 

llirschl and Bendheim. of St. Louis co-operated with us in securing 
data concerning the cob pipe industry. 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Studies of Corn and its Uses. 

Illinois Bulletin No. 9. 
Indian Corn as a Food for Man. 

Maine Bulletin No. 131. 
Report on the Value of a New Corn Prothict. 

Maryland Bulletin No. 43. 




CHAPTER XV 

COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF 

CORN 

THE GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS 

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE* Dr. C. G. Hopkins, of the Illinois 
Experiment Station, has made a very satisfactory mechanical analysis 
of the corn kernel. He divides it into six different parts, as follows: 

1. Tip Cap. This is a email cap covering the tip end of the 

I , , ■ . 111-1 T • . Corn kernel 

kernel and serving as a protection to the end of the germ. It consists divided 
of material somewhat resembling the cob. Occasionally in shelling e parts 
corn the tip cap remains attached to the cob, leaving the tip end of 
the germ uncovered, but nearly always sticks to the kernel. 

2. Hull. This is a very thin outer covering of the kernel. It 
consists largely of carbohydrates, especially fiber or cellulose, although 
it also contains a small percentage of other constituents. 

3. Horny Glutenous Part. This part lies immediately underneath 
the hull. It constitutes a second covering of the kernel. For short 
it is called "horny gluten," although it is, of course, not pure gluten. 
However, it is the richest in protein of any part of the corn kernel. 

4. Horny Starchy Part. This part lies next to the horny gluten. 
on the back and sides of the kernel. For short it is called "horny 
starch," although it is not pure starch, as it contains considerable 
amounts of other constituents, especially protein. In an examination 
of the kernel with the unaided eye. the horny glutenous and the horny 
starchy parts are not readily distinguished from each other, the line 
between them being fomewhat indefinite and indistinct. Considered 
both together, these two parts constitute the horny part of the kernel. 

5. White Starchy Fart, This part occupies the crown end of 
the kernel above the germ, and it also nearly surrounds the germ to- 
ward the tip end of the kernel. For convenience, this material is 
called "white starch," although it is not pure starch. In some kernels 
the horny starch extends nearly or quite to the germ, near the middle 

* Bulletin Xo. 87, Illiuois Experiment Station. 



Horny 

Starch 



Horny 
Gluten 




Fig. 130. 
THE PHYSICAL PARTS OF THE CORN KERNEL. 



PHYSICAL PARTS OF KERNEL. 347 

of the kernel, and thus separates more or less completely the white 
starch. 

6. Germ. The germ occupies the center oi the front of the ker- 
nel toward the tip and usually extends about one-half or two-thirds of 
the length of the kernel. 

MECHANICAL SEPARATION OF THE DIFFERENT 
PARTS. It is not a very difficult matter to obtain very pure samples 
of each of the above named parts of the corn kernel, although in mak- 
ing the separations there is of necessity some waste material consist- 
ing of a mixture of the different parts. 

By use of a small, sharp knife anyone can make the following 
separations : 

1. Tip Cap. 

2. Hull. 

3. Horny Gluten. 

4. Germ. 

5. White Starch. 

a. Crown starch. 

b. Tip starch. 

6. Horny Starch. 

7. Waste (Mixed Materials). 

In making these separations, the kernels are first soaked in hot 
water for 15 or 20 minutes. 

Removal of Parts, — i. Tip Cap. With a knife cut one side, 
preferably that on which the germ is located, then cut the back side. 
Bend the whole tip toward the side of the first cut and the cap will 
come off with trim edges. H only one side is first cut, there is lia- 
bility of removing part of the hull with the tip cap. 

2. Hull. Catching the edge of the swollen hull under the blade 
of a knife, peel it back, beginning on the back side of the kernel first. 
Be careful to dislodge all of the hull from the wrinkled crown in 
pinched dent corn. 

3. Horny Gluten. Covering the entire kernel like a coat of 
"sealing wax," will now be seen a thin layer, wdiich in yellow corn 
is readily identified because of its yellow color, especially where con- 
trasted with the white starch of the crown. In shaving off this thin 
layer, the greatest care should be exercised not to get too deep, 
either in the white or the horny starch. The fact that the horny 
starch loses its lustre just so soon as the horny gluten is removed, is 



34S 



CORN. 



an indication that the scraping has continued long enough. No horny 
gluten will be found covering the surface of the germ. 

4. Germ, Next split the kernel lengthwise, through center of 
the germ. With the knife slowly "scallop" out the half of the germ 
from each section of the kernel. The depth can easily be gauged by 
the line between the germ and the starchy part beneath. 

5. White Starch. — 

(a) Crown Starch. The large cap of starch at the crown can now 
easily be cut oflf just above its junction with the horny starch. Some 
white starch will have to be whittled out of the small strip appearing 
between the cheeks of horny starch. 

(b) Tip Starch. Near the tip of the kernel Avill be seen a white 
starch which is removed with difficulty from between the cheeks of 
horny starch. 

6. Horny Starch. This usually remains intact in two large pieces. 

7. Mixed Waste. Because of the difficulty in securing pure 
samples of these parts, there will remain some particles of mixed 
material which results largely from scraping the horny starch to re- 
move the white starch and horny gluten. This should be weighed 
separately. 

PHYSICAL ANALYSES. 
From physical analyses at Illinois, Hopkins found the percentages 
of the respective parts to vary as follows : 
PERCENTAGES OF DIFFERENT PA RTS. 



Names of Parts 



Low Protein Ear 



Medium Protein Kar 



High Protein 
Ear 



Tip Caps .... 

Hulls 

Horny Gluten 
Horny Starch 
Crown Starch 
Tip Starch . . , 

Germs 

Mixed Waste , 



1.20 

5.47 

7.75 

29.58 

16.94 

10.93 

9.59 

18.53 



1.46 

5.93 

5.12 

32.80 

11.85 

5.91 

'11.53 

25.40 



1.62 

6.09 

9.86 

33.79 

10.45 

6.23 

11.93 

20.03 



A very large percent of mixed waste will be noted from these 
tables. Ry computations it was shown that this waste consisted al- 
most entirely of horny gluten, horny starch, crown starch, and tip 
starch. Consequently, after distributing the error secured from this 
mixed waste the percentages appear as follows 



Names of Parts 


Low Protein Ear Medium Protein Ear 


High Protein 
Ear 


Tip Caps 

Hulls 


1.20 
5.47 
11.61 
37.15 
21.26 
13.71 
9.59 


1-46 1.62 


Horny Gluten 

Horny Starch 

Crown Starch 

Tip Starch 


8.51 
47.08 
17.01 

8.48 
11.53 


b.U9 
13.32 
44.89 
13.88 


Germs 


6.28 




11.93 


Total 


99.99 


100.00 


100.01 



COMPOSITION OF PARTS. 



349 



Takinsa: an car of medium protein the following table shows the 
percentage composition of the dififerent parts of the kernels. 



COMPOSITION OF PARTS. 



Names of Parts 



\\ hole Kernel 

Tip Caps 

Hulls 

Horn Gluten 
Horny Starch 
Crown Starch 
Tip Starch . . . 

Germs 

Mixed Waste 



Protein 
Percent 



10.95 

8.83 

3.96 

22.50 

10 20 

7.92 

7.68 

19.80 

11.10 



Oil 
Percent 



4.33 

2.30 
.89 

6.93 

.24 

.17 

.39 

34.84 

1.23 



Ash 
Percent 



1.55 

1.11 
.79 

1.72 
.24 
.24 
.31 

9.90 
.57 



Carbo 
hydrates 
Percent 



83.17 
87.76 
94.36 
69.09 
89.32 
91.67 
91.62 
35.46 
87.10 



A close study should be made of this table. The facts that the 
horny gluten is 22.50 per cent protein and that the germ is 34.84 
per cent oil, are very striking. 

The most significant table is here presented, which shows the 
percentage distribution of the chemical constituents among the physi- 
cal parts for an ear of medium protein content. 



Names of Parts 

In Tip Caps 

In Hull 

In Horny Gluten . . . 
In Horny Starch . . . 

In Corn Starch 

In Tip Starch 

In Germs 

Total 



PiTceiit of 
Total Protein 



Percent (if 
Total Oil 



Percent of 
Total Ash 



Percent of 
Total Car 
boliydrates 



1.14 
2.07 
16.67 
42.36 
11.88 
5.75 
20.14 



100.01 



.69 

1.08 

12.21 

2.32 

.59 

.68 

82.43 



100.00 



1.06 
3.06 
9.56 
7.38 
2.67 
1.72 
74.55 
100.00 



1.56 

6.80 

7.15 

51.12 

18.96 

9.45 

4.97 

TOO.Ol 




Fisr. 1.^1 I 
CROSS SECTION OF CORN KERNEL. 
g. Germ. f. p. Floury part or while 



82.43 per cent of all the oil 
in a kernel of corn in the above 
case is in the germ. The fact 
that corn has a large or small 
germ is therefore indicative of 
its oil content. The large per 
cent (42.63) of protein in the 
horny starch accounts for the 
higher feeding value of well ma- 
tured corn, which always shows 
a greater development of horny 
starch. 



starch, 
st.irch. 



h. p. Hcrny part, or herny 



350 



CORN. 




Fig . ISli 



Dividing the kernel into three 
jiarts. the crown, middle, and 
tip, the following percentages 
of the valuable food constituents 
are shown :* 

A full, plump tip, as shown by 
this table, indicates that the 
corn is of high feeding value. 



Fig. 131-2 

1. — Corn kernel divided into (c) Crown, 
which is mostly white starch: (m) 
middle, which lakes in some of the 
germ and the greater part of the horny 
starch and is therefore richest in pro- 
tein: (t) tip, which is richest in oil. 





Parts 


Percent Protein 


Percent Oi 


Total 


Crown 


13.51 

9.98 

12.26 


1.00 
3.33 

12.02 


14.51 


Middle 


13.31 


Tin 


24.2S 







CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF CORN 

The animal body is made up of bones, flesh, tendons, skin, hair, 
horny substances, and a large, though varying amount of water. Just 
as the animal body is made up of varying proportions of flesh, fats, 
water and bone, so a plant is made up of various similar substances 
from which this flesh, fat, and bone is made. These component parts 
of the plant represent a large number of chemical compounds. For 
our discussion, however, they are grouped together under a few gen- 
eral heads and in two great classes. 

I. Organic compounds. 
A. Nitrogenous. 

I. Protein. 
R. Non-nitrogenous. 

1. Fat. 

2. Carbohydrates. 

(a) Soluble carbohydrates or nitrogen free extract. 

(b) Insoluble carbohydrates or crude fiber. 

II. Inorganic compounds. 

A. Ash. 

B. Water. 

As each of these groups has its specific part to play in the build- 
ing up of the animal body, they will here be discussed separately. 

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.— Protein. The beneficial results 
following the use of oil meal, bran, clover and alfalfa hay, we know, 



CARBOHYDRATES AND FAT. 351 

come largely from the protein which these feeds contain in greater 
abundance than most of the feeds grown on the farm. 

The word "protein"* is used to designate a large number of sub- 
stances that differ from each other more or less in chemical composi- 
tion. These substances are alike in one particular — they all contain 
nitrogen. So the term protein has come to be applied to any nitrog- 
enous substance, whether animal or vegetable.** 

As far as we are at present able to determine, the proteids of the 
body are built up only by the animal assimilating the nitrogenous pro- 
teids already existing in the plant tissues which are consumed in its 
daily ration. Unlike plants, the animal cannot manufacture its own 
l)rotein for tlesh or milk forming. All it can do is to modify the plant 
protein and utilize it to form its body tissues, milk solids, and egg 
albumen. This is why, from the view point of the feeder, protein is 
such an essential part of corn or any other plant. Besides the part 
it plays in building up the tissues, protein has a stimulative effect 
u])on the animal functions. It has been found by the Geneva, New 
\\)rk. E.xperiment Station that protein may be manufactured by the 
animal into body fat. It may also be used to supply heat and energy 
to the animal. 

Carbohydrates and Fat.*** All plants contain fat chiefly in the 
form of vegetable oils. The oils of the corn germ, of linseed, 
of cott-.n seed, and the olive, occur in such cjuantities that they are 
pressed out or extracted and have a cremical value greater than they 
\*(»uld have as feeds for our domestic animals. All plants contain 
starch (the corn kernel may sometimes contain as high as 70 per 
cent) ****sugars and vegetable gums. The starches, sugars, and gums 
are called carbohydrates. The carbohydrates, through a process of 
oxidation very similar to burning of wood in an engine or stove, sup- 
I'ly the energy that the animal requires to masticate, digest, and as- 

*.\l)out 1() per coiit of most protein substances has been found to consist of nitrogen. In 
(U'lerniiiiins the amount of protein present in corn or other grain the amount of nitrogen 
it contains is firse obtained, then by multiplying the amount of nitrogen present in the 
feed by lOOlfi, or 6 1-4, we obtain an estimate of the protein present. 
**Thu8 lean meat freed of fat and connective tissue is protein. The white albumen of egg 
is protein: so is the gluten of wheat flour. The protein of corn found principally in the 
germ and horny gluten, as well as in smaller amounts in the stalk and other portions of 
the plant. It "supplies the flesh forming materials and repairs the wastes of the animal 
body. It is also one of the indispensable factors in milk production. It is from this 
substance tl>.»t the cow makes the casein and albumens for her milk and that the hen 
manufactures the white albumen for her eggs. 
***In determining the percentage of fat, anhydrous ether is used to extract this substance 
from the water-free plant tissues. Ether dissolves small amounts of vegetable gums 
and similar substances other than fats; so in the tables of analyses, fats, gums, etc. 
are classed as "ether extract." In calculations, however, the figures in the columns 
under "ether extract" mav be used as indicating the percentages of fat. In the tables 
that follow the soluble carbohvdrates are found under the heading of "nitrogen free 
extract" In the analvsis of a grain or fodder th« nitrogen free extract is determined 
bv difference That is, in a weighed sample of a grain or fodder the percentage of all 
of the other constituents, water, ash, protein, fat, and crude fiber, are first determined 
and the sum of these subtracted from 100. The difference is called nitrogen free ex- 
tract or in some tables, carbohydrates. , ,, . „ . j ^,1 14 
'*Thi8 starch which is also found largely in the fodder is not aflPect<"d greatly by cold 
water, therefore little of it is carried off by leaching. 



352 



CORN. 



similate its food ; to transform the crude food products into milk prod- 
ucts or eggs ; or, as in the horse to do its daily work. They also furnish 
heat to the body. After these maintenance requirements are fulfilled 
whatever food elements are left are stored away in various parts of 
the body in the form of animal fat for further use. 

Then when food supplies are insufficient, the animal draws upon 
its body fat for material out of which to manufacture milk, 
or for fuel to keep its body warm. The fats or oils of grains and fod- 
ders act in the body in very much the same way as do the carbohy- 
chief food dratcs, but they produce a greater amount of heat and energy. Fat 

substances , , . 111 1 • 

has about 2.4 times as much heat and energy producing power as 
have the carbohydrates. For this reason, fats rank next in import- 
ance after protein as an essential part of an animal's ration. Protein, 
the fats, and the carbohydrates, are the three important food materials, 
but since the fats meet the same fate in the body as do the carbo 
hydrates, there are really only two chief substances, (i) the flesh form- 
ers (protein) ; and (2) the heat and energy formers (carbohydrates and 
fats). The part that each of these three constituents plays in the ani- 
mal economy, is indicated in the following diagram : 



riti ?Vur>^ 




rieb^»,wool etc, 

riilk solids, egg olbumma. 

heot ond energy 

Heot ond energy 

Body fot. 
Butter -fol etc 

Meat oncJ ener-qy. 



Fig, 320 
'Di.nKram shnwiiis fho uses to wliich fcod stulTs are put in the aniraal body. 



Crude Fiber. The cells and frame work of growing plants as well 
as the covering of seeds and grains are made up of more or less woody 
fiber called "cellulose." Cellulose is chemically similar to the starches 
and therefore might properly be termed a carl)ohydrate, but as the 
greater portion of it is practically indigestible, this indigestible or 
insoluble jKirtion is classed by itself as "crude fiber." While yielding 
very little matter nutritious to the feeding animal, crude fiber has 
an important mechanical cfifect on the digestion of food. 

It is the crude fiber in the feed that gives bulk to the contents of 

fiber the jjaunch, and unless a cow or steer receives sufficient "rous^haee" 
Elves bulk ..... . 00 

With Its ration it cannot ruminate. There is no foundation for the 

*An original diagram, designed by Prof. L. G. Michael of the Iowa Experiment Station. 



INORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 35;: 

cud, and the food escapes that thorough chewing that is so essential 
to the complete digestion of the carbohydrates. This is the reason 
why it is advisable to feed chaffed hay or shredded corn stalks Avith 
grain to ruminants. 

After mastication the crude fiber gives mass to the digesting sub- 
stances in the stomach and bowels, rendering them porous and mak- 
ing it easy for the digestive fluids to find their way to the valuable 
food ingredients. After the digestive fluids have extracted all or 
most of the nutritious portions of the feed the crude fiber contmues 
to keep the waste material in the lower bowels loose and bulky. The 
bowels are thus better able to grip and pass on the mass to final ex- 
cretion. In this way crude fiber has a tendency to prevent impac- 
tion or constii)ation. 

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS.— Ash. All feeds when burned 

leave an ash. The ash is valuable as a food inasmuch as it furnishes 

the materials that form the bones of the animal, especially a young 

growing animal, and that form the minerals for the blood, tissues and 

milk solids. Corn meal may contain as low as i per cent of ash while p°rn is 

J ' lacking 

corn fodder may run as high as 3 or 4 per cent in these materials, i" ^^"^ 
These ash compounds have never been given sufficient consideration 
from the standpoint of their value in animal growth. As we have 
seen, the corn grain is noticeably lacking in mineral matter which 
makes uj) almost three-fourths of the bones of animals. In practice 
the hogs of Iowa and Illinois which have been fed an excess of corn 
thr(^ugh their growing period show a small frame and under size, al- 
though showing evidence of refinement and quality. The shoats of 
western Nebraska are rugged and growthy, showing when young, scale 
and roughness of frame due to running on alfalfa pasture which fur- 
nishes a large amount of mineral matter. 

As students of corn it should be observed that the ash is chiefly 
found in the part of the plant which is usually lost on the farms in 
the corn belt. In other words, the corn fodder, which is quite rich in com stalks 

,',, ,, . .... J/-- contain 

mineral matter, remains in the field and the grain which is so dencient most of 

the ash, 
in inorganic elements is fed heavily. Corn is the one food which, while 

so heavily grown and fed in the greatest live stock area of the United 

States, is lacking in ash. 

Water. The corn stalk may be apparently very dry, but if some ./Although 

loosely broken leaves are placed in a tumbler or drinking glass and ^PP^^'^^y 

the glass inverted on a dinner plate and set in the sunlight, drops of some 

water will soon be seen to collect on the inner surface of the glass. ™°*^ """^ 
All grains and feeds contain water no matter how dry they may seem. 



354 



CORN. 



The amount of water present depends upon tlie kind of feed and the 
conditions to which it has been exposed ; for hay, fodders and grains 
are constanly taking up and giving off water according to atmospheric 
changes."* 

Pasture grasses contain from 62 to 80 per cent of water; while 
roots, like mangles, beets, and carrots may contain 87 to 90 per cent ; 
and hay and grains from 8 to 15 per cent. As the percentages of all the 
other ingredients decrease proportionately as the water content in- 
creases, this is an important factor to consider in the tabulated analys- 
es of feeds. 

Water, when organic, that is, a normal constituent of the feed it- 
self, as in beets or silage, has a direct effect on the animal functions; 
especially is this true of the dairy cow. Within certain limits the more 
water a cow can be induced to take into her body, the more milk she 
will produce without affecting the quality. In this respect organic wa- 
ter, as in silage or roots, is most efficacious. 

Water has several uses in the animal economy. It aids the digest- 
ive organs in dissolving the more concentrated portions of the feed and 
has the beneficial physiological effect of keeping the bowel contents 
free and loose. This is the reason why green fodder, used as a soil- 
ing crop, in fall after the pastures are dry, and ensilage, fed during 
the winter, are such valuable adjuncts to a corn and hay ration. 

THE FEEDING VALUE OF CORN 

The value of any feed depends upon, first, its percentage composi- 
tion of digestible and desirable nutrients, together with the propor- 
tions of these components; second, its palatability and ease of masti- 
cation, and third, its cost of production and preparation for feeding. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION. 

(Table showing in percent the chem ical composition of corn in differ- 
ent forms.) 



.• 


Water 


Ash Protein 


Crude 
Fibre 


Nitrogen 
free extract 


Fat 


Dent Varieties 


10.56 

14.98 
10.70 
15.08 
42.20 


1.53 
1.42 
1.40 
1.46 
2.70 


10.25 
9.17 
2.40 
8.45 
4.50 


2.24 
1.90 

30.10 
6.62 

14.30 


70.40 
68.76 
54.90 
64.86 
34.70 


5 02 


Corn Meal 


3 77 


Corn Cob 


^.50 
3.53 
1.60 


Corn and Cob Meal 

Corn Fodder 





A study of this table shows corn to be very high in percentage of 
nitrogen-free extract. When it is considered that 70 per cent of the 
corn kernel is starch, the fact that corn is so heat-forming in work- 
ing animals is not strange. The 5.02 per cent of oil is very 

*For example, grains raised in California are sold by weight, and when loaded on ships nre 
in a very dry condition. In their voyage across the Pacific they absorb water from the 
atmosphere and in this way often increase sufficiently in weight to pay the freight. 



PALATABILITY. 



355 



high, comi^ared with other grains. This, together with the starch, is a 
rich source of fat in the animal body. The 10.25 P^r cent of protein is 
not so low in comparison with the other cereals, if it were not for the 
fact that the percentage of starch and fat is so high. The corn kernel 
is not coarse in cellular structure, as shown by the small amount of 
crude fiber. Corn is comparatively dry, considering the openness of 
its starchy cells, which tend to hold hydroscopic moisture. 

Percentage. C OMPositioN of Corn 



Cor^ k,r^,l 



Nltro,../ ),,. .. 




£ thrr . r. ttract 
Crude fiber 



Fig. 132. 



100.00 

70.40 
10 bO 

10.30 
SOD 
220 
I SO 



The mineral matter in corn is seriously lacking, due largely, no 
doubt, to its (juick growth and starchy structure. The plant draws 
chiefly from the organic rather than the inorganic material in the soil. 

DIGESTIBILITY. 

The student who is just beginning to find out the chemical compo- 
sition of corn is liable to overlook a second step in the study of the 
percentages. From experiments, the amounts of digestible nutrients 
have been found to be present in corn in its different forms. 





Dry Matter in 
100 Lbs 


Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds 


Form of Com 


Protein ] Carbohydrates j ^'^]'^^^^_ 


Corn Dent 


89.40 
85.00 
89.30 
84.90 
57.80 


7.80 
6.26 
.40 
4.40 
2.50 


66.70 
65.26 
52.50 
60.00 
34.60 


4.30 


Corn Meal 


3.50 


Corn Cob 


.30 


Corn and Cob Meal 

Corn Fodder 


2.90 
1.20 







Comparing this table with the figures giving the total percentage 
composition, it will be seen that the protein is 76 per cent digestible, 
the carbohydrates (headed "nitrogen-free extract" in previous table) 
94.7 and the ether extract 84.8. These percentages are significant. The 
fact that corn is so largely utilized by the animal makes it an econom- 
ical food. Its constituents are in such physical and chemical com- 
bination as to be easily disintegrated, dissolved, acted upon by the 
digestive juices, and assimilated. 

PALATABILITY AND MASTICATION. Except when dry and ^Seated 
flintv from long storage, shelled corn is easily masticated. The starchy 
cellular structure breaks up irregularly and abruptly, there being no 



356 



CORN. 



formation of a fjriutciious and pasty mass. The starch of corn readily 
changes to sugar in the process of mastication, which renders it very 
palatable. Western stock which has never been fed corn, in a short 
time acquires a taste for it when put on feed in the corn belt. 

COST OF PRODUCTION AND PREPARATION FOR FEED- 
ING. As will be shown later, the number of pounds of corn required 
to produce lOO pounds of pork or beef is not much lower than in the 
case of other cereals, iioo pounds of corn, the amount required to pro- 
duce lOO pounds of beef, at 45 cents per bushel of 56 pounds, would be 
worth $8.03. The same amount of Avheat meal would also be required 
to produce 100 pounds of beef, and would be worth $11 if figured on the 
basis of 60 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. This is not considering the 
cost of grinding the wheat. 

Within the last year the price of corn has been so high as to nulli- 
stufTs of like chemical content. However, the cost of preparation is 
less. 

CORN VS. OTHER CEREALS. The following table shows the 
number of pounds of corn in different forms required to produce lOO 
])ounds gain in farm animals. The averages were made from reports 
of the stations of several states. 

AMOUNT OF CORN REQUIRED TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS GAIN. 



Feed 


Pork 


Beef 


Mutton 


Ear Corn 

Shelled Corn 

Corn Meal 

Corn and Cob Meal 


1 

534.4 
469.0 

1 581.3 


1,410** 
1,100** 
1,051.5** 
996** 


508" 



♦Fed with hay to lambs. 
**Roughage used also. 



AMOUNTS OF OTHER FEEDS. 



Wheat Meal 
Middlings . . 
Barley Meal 

Oats 

Oil Meal ... 



463 
522 
471 




518** 



*Fed with hay. 

♦♦Fed with hay and roots. 

No marked difference is noticed between the amounts of corn and 
those of other feeds required to produce gain. The economic impor- 
tance lies in the comparative cost and palatability of the concentrates. 

CORN AS A FEED FOR HORSES. Corn is very desirable feed 
for horses because it recjuires little time for mastication. A horse 
spends little time in chewing and when hard at work should not be 
required to expend a large amount of energy in preparing its food. As 
a horse chews its food but once, the starches in it must be readily 
changed into sugar. This characteristic is especially true of corn. 
There is no formation of a pasty mass so obnoxious to a horse. The 



CORN AS FEED FOR HOGS. 



357 



Stomach of a horse is of limited capacity, hence the food should be 
quite concentrated. This requirement is fulfilled by corn. 

However, a work horse requires a narrow nutritive ration. The 
nutritive ratio of shelled corn is i -.f^.y, which means that for every Nutriuve 
pound of (lif^estible protein which is fed, there accompanies it 9.7 sheiied com 
jiDunds of dijjfestible carbohydrates. This is spoken of as a medium ^^'^ 
ratio. Accordinj;^ to the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, the horse 
at medium work requires a nutritive ration of i :6.2, which is much 
narrower than that supplied by corn. In other words, there is too 
much carbohydrates and fat for the amount of protein present. 
A lar<:;er percentage of protein is necessary to balance the heat-form- 
ing constituents. Draft horses sweat profusely and appear "logy" 
when fed corn too heavily during the working season. In winter, corn 
is bound to form a large part of the farm horse ration because of its 
abundance in the corn belt. 

Next to oats, bran is the best mixture with corn. It separates the 
particles of corn so that the juices can get at them. At times in win- 
ter, the whole grain feed may be made up of corn, and it may even 
supply three-fourths of the ration in summer. 

CORN AS A FEED FOR HOGS. In arranging a ration for hogs 
it should be kept in mind that this animal has a very limited digestive 
capacity and therefore cannot consume a large quantity of bulky food. 
The purpose for which the ration is fed, whether for fattening, grow- 
ing, or to the mother when carrying her suckling young, is also an 
important consideration. 

For the Sow. Corn being so high in carbohydrates and fat, tends 
to produce an excess of internal fat in a brood sow before farrowing, com 
After farrowing and during the suckling of the pigs, corn can be used [oo'^much 
in supj)lying the carbonaceous part of the ration. But it must be fat for_ 
remembered that corn has a constipatory effect upon the sow, which is 
contrary to practical feeding. An addition of oil meal or grass will 
be necessary to produce laxativeness. 

For the Growing Pig. The type of fat hog in the Mississippi Val- 
ley has been molded during the first months of the life of the pigs 

LIGHT. .MEDIUM. AND HEAVY GRAIN RATION FOR PIGS. 



the sow 



; ^t 5 -^ ,= 






■*>.:: .2 c 
c « t< =3 O 



Average weight, each pig. August 27 

Average weight, each pig. October 27 

Average gain from August 27 to October 27.. 

Daily gain per pig 

Average amount of corn consumed by each 

pig per day 

Corn consumed per pound of gain 

Cost of corn per 100 pounds of gain 

Cost of pasture per 100 lbs. of gain. $14.30. . . 
Total cost per 100 pounds of gain, $14.30... 



73.50 

95.20 

21.70 

.34 

1.33 

3.86 

2.08 

.66 



73.50 

113.30 

39.80 

.63 

2.48 

3.98 

2.15 

.30 



72.50 

126.20 

53.70 

.83 

i;.4S 
4.2:'. 
2.2s 

In 



2.74 



2.45 



2.43 



358 



CORN. 



Add a 



i;ri)\vn by the use of corn. For the younj; pii;. corn lacks two essen- 
tial constituents, protein or muscle-forminc^, and asli or bone-forming. 
The stunted, stubby, early maturing hog is the result of early forcing 
with corn. Formerly, only corn was used. The pasture grass made 
a splendid supplement. Then concentrates high in protein were fed 
with corn. With the introduction of alfalfa, greater gains and more 
general and profitable use of corn will come about. 

Fattening Hogs. A fattening hog requires for maximum gains i 

"high pLiund of protein to 6.5 pounds of carbonaceous constituents. As corn 

Footto alone has an excess of the latter, so much digestible matter is lost 

*^°'^'* for want of a balance of some other feed high in protein. In Missouri, 

oil meal has given the best results when fed with corn. 

As a rule, a saving of one-third is made by adding 20 to 30 per cent 
of some high protein food to a corn ration. 

The following figures taken from Bulletin No. 91 of the Iowa Sta- 
tion, show the relative value of corn alone as compared with corn 
and supplemental foods : 



FEED 


Total Feed 

Per 100 

Pounds Gain 


Cost Per 

100 Pounds 

Gain 


Daily 

Gain 

Pounds 


Profit Per 

Bushel Grain 

Feed 


Corn alone 


463.5 
370.3 
398.7 


3.56 
3.21 
3.41 


1.88 

2.865 

2.341 


.57 


Corn 9, Meat Meal 1 

Corn 9, Tankage 1 


.70 
.65 







The corn alone to these hogs in dry lot, give smaller daily gains 
and less profit per bushel of corn fed. The supplemental feeds, al- 
though having to be bought, brought in larger returns for the amount 
of corn fed. 



Corn 



CORN FOR SHEEP. The finishing of mutton has in the past 
ration heen confined to certain districts of the West and North, as a special- 
ized industry. However, the recent high prices of lambs upon the 
markets have opened the way for feeders in the corn belt to try their 
hand. As a result, the farm yards of Iowa and eastern Nebraska have 
seen more sheep than ever before. The one feed is corn. As fatten- 
ing sheep require a very narrow ration, about i to 5, a hay high in pro- 
tein must be fed in order to produce heavy gains. The corn is usually 
shelled before feeding, although the lambs are usually started on 
broken ears. 

As a cheap way of finishing, many lambs have been run in corn 
fields, beginning as early as September 15th. The weeds and lower 
leaves are first cleared up, but finally a taste for corn is acquired and 
soon they are on full feed. Rape sown in the corn at the rate of 5 to 



CORN FOR CATTLE. 



359 



lo pounds per acre, at the last cultivation, produces, if the stand of 
corn is thin, a large amount of succulent feed for early fall grazing. 
Very little grain is wasted by this method and the manure is left in 
the field. 

Corn, as a part of the ration of breeding ewes, should be omitted. Not 
If any one feed has kept the English mutton breed out of Iowa and fo7*the^° 
Missouri, up to this time, it is corn. Until it is either supplemented flock^*"^ 
or else replaced entirely, a healthy lamb drop cannot be expected. The 
corn ration of 1 19.7 is too wide compared with 1 15.6, which has 
proved the best. 

FOR MILCH COWS. As a grain, corn lacks both the protein 
and asli which arc so essential to milk production. The nutritive ra- 
tion for heavy producing cows is i 4.5, which is about one-half as Lacks 
wide as corn itself. No doubt the extensive feeding of corn on the and*\sii 
farms in the corn belt accounts in a measure for the low milk produc- in'^miik^ 
tion per cow in that district. The cow requires her carbonaceous con- 
stituents in the form of bulk or roughage and the protein in concen- 
trates. 

The usual farm rations of corn and corn fodder (1:15), or of tim- 
othy and corn (1:12) are entirely too wide. With the use of alfalfa, 
however, a ratio somewhere near the proper amount of protein is 
secured. 

FOR YOUNG CATTLE. As corn will necessarily have to be 
largely used in the corn belt for winter beef calves and yearlings, 
which are intended for finishing when older, two rations taken from 
*Smith are given, figured on a basis of 500-pound calf. 



Red clover, 12 pounds. 

Corn, 3 pounds 

Total 

Alfalfa, 7 pounds 

Corn stover, 6 pounds. . 

Corn, 3 pounds 

Total 



Dry 
Matter 



10.1 

2.6 

12.7 

6.4 

3.6 

2.6 

12.6 




1:6.6 



stunts 
calves 



Too often calves are stunted on a ration of corn and highly car- 
bonaceous roughage. However, corn being economical, the thing to alone 
do is to balance it as well as possible with some home-grown rough- 
age. 

As a rule, when feeding on pastures of short rotation, there is 
sufficient clover present to warrant the feeding of corn alone as a grain 

♦Profitable Stock Feeding by H. R. Smith, Page 160. 



360 



CORN. 



ration. Smith* had this to say in regard to supplemental feeds with 
corn for cattle on grass : "During a summer period of 30 weeks five 
two-year-old Angus steers were fed an average of 17.8 pounds of 
shelled corn each per day, making an average daily gain of 1.63 
pounds. Another lot of five steers of the same kind were each fed 
17.8 pounds of grain per day, consisting of 90 per cent shelled corn and 
10 per cent of oil meal. These steers made an average gain of 2.02 
pounds per day during the same time. The pasture was alike in both 
lots. Those fed corn and oil meal required but 8.8 pounds of grain 
for one pound of increase in weight, while those fed corn alone re- 
quired 10.9 pounds, ^^'ith pasture worth $3 per acre, corn worth at 
that time 33 cents per bushel, and oil meal $25 per ton, each 100 
pounds of gain on corn alone cost 13 per cent more than on corn and 
oil meal. In this experiment, if the oil meal had cost $44 per ton, 
instead of $25, nothing would have been saved by feeding it." 




(Ci)urtesy A. E. Cook, Brookraont Farms.) 
Fig. 133. 

CATTLE IN AN IOWA FEED LOT 

steer requires something like 6 pounds of digestible carbonaceous 
food to I of protein. Here again, corn alone or corn and corn fod- 
food to one of protein. Here again, corn alone or corn and corn fod- 
der or timothy hay, are entirely too low in protein. One-third of the 
value of the digestible constituents is lost from lack of balancing with 
some concentrate high in ]:)rotein or some roughage similarly consti- 
tuted. At Nebraska alfalfa and corn gave 14 per cent larger gains 
than ])rairie hay and corn, and 10 per cent more than prairie hay, 
corn, and oil meal.** In tests at the Iowa Station corn and wheat 
straw produced gains for $10.71 per 100 pounds; corn and grass for 

♦Profitable Stock Feediiif; bv H. R. Smith. Page 167. 
**Io\vn Bulletin No. 66. 



FEEDING VALUE OF BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN. 361 

$10.20; corn, gluten meal, and wheat straw for $9.34; corn, oil meal, 
and wheat straw for $11.02. 

PREPARING CORN FOR STOCK.— Corn Meal. The grinding 
of corn would theoretically increase its digestibility and therefore en- Grinding 
hance its feeding value. This is due to the greater accessibility of the culestfbmty 
digestive juices to the finer particles of the ground corn, and to the 
more complete mixing of the meal with the other feeds eaten, espc 
cially roughage. 

A summary of tests at the Kentucky. ^lissouri, and Ohio Sta- 
tions, places the saving of corn due to grinding at 7 per cent. Wis- 
consin proved a saving of 8 per cent. It is something of a question 
whether even such a saving warrants grinding for hogs. 

Although a saving of 8 per cent in the amount of corn fed 
was made at the Kansas Station in producing beef. Smith* concludes 
that this is insufficient to pay for the cost of grinding and the labor 
attached thereto. 

INFLUENCE UPON DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDING MATERIALS, WHOLE 

OR GROUND. 

Pg . I Number of I Drjr 1 Digestion Cnefticients 

I Animals I Matter | P rote in | N'iliogen-free Extract | Fat 

Corn Meal | 2 horses | 88.4 | 75.6 | 95.7 | 7:11 

Whole Corn | 2 horses 74.4 57.8 I 88.2 47.7 

Difference | | 14.4 | 17.8 | 7.5 | 25.4 

These figures show a slight increase in percentage of digestibility 
due to grinding. 

Corn and Cob Meal vs. Ear Corn for Hogs. From results at the 
New llampshire !~^tation**, it was concluded that ground corn and cob 
meal had a slightly better feeding value in increasing the daily gain 
of hogs. Init for practical purposes it is more economical to feed corn 
on the ear rather than hauling to the mill and grinding for feed. In 
any event, corn and cob meal is rather bulky. 

THE FEEDING VALUE OF THE BY-PRODUCTS 

OF CORN 

Supplemental foods high in protein are often used quite largely in 
the production of milk and pork. The by-products of corn are increas i^^t^yer"*^*' ' 
ing in amount each year because of the demand for manufactured palatable 
foods made from corn. These by-products are not as palatable as 
might be supposed considering the palatability of corn itself. 

♦Profitable Cattle Feeding:, H. R. Smith, Page 188. 
**New Hampshire Bulletin 66. 



36f 



CORN. 



In any case llic choice of protein foods depends upon their real 
cflFiciency at the current market price. This efficiency depends upon 
their total protein content together with its digestibility. Palatability 
is a minor factor because such small amounts are fed. 

COMPOSITION OF THE BY-PRODUCTS OF CORN AS FOOD FOR STOCK.* 



Feeding Stuff 


Water 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude 
Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
Free Extract 


Ether 
Extract 


Corn Bran 


9.1 

10.7 

11.1 

8.1 

10.9 

65.4 

5.8 

8.1 

7.8 

8.2 

9.22 


1.3 

4.0 

2.5 

1.3 

.9 

.3 

2.8 

.7 

1.1 

0.9 

4.0 


9.0 

9.8 

9.8 
11.1 
19.7 

6.1 
31.1 
36.1 
24.0 
29.3 

6.38 


12.7 

4.1 

3.8 

9.9 

4.7 

3.1 
12.0 

1.3 

5.3 

3.3 
28.70 


62.2 
64.0 
64.5 
62.5 
54.8 
22.0 
33.4 
39.0 
51.2 
46.5 
48.70 


5.8 


Corn Germ 


7.4 


Honiinv Chops 


8.3 


Germ Meal 


7.1 


Dried Starch and Sugar Feed 

Starch Feed (wet) 

Grano-Gluten 


9.0 

3.1 

14.9 


Cream Gluten 


14.8 


Gluten Feed 


10.6 


Gluten Meal 


11.8 


New Corn Product 


2.84 







Gluten Meal. Gluten meal as a pure product is now little 
known on the market. Consisting largely of gluten it is very rich in 
protein, reaching almost 30 per cent. Having very little foundation 
of indigestible material, care must be exercised in its feeding. 

The following table taken from Bulletin No. 156 of Virginia, shows 
the comparative value of gluten meal and cottonseed meal for milk 
production : 



Feed 



Gluton Meal 



! Cotton Seed Meal 



Cost per ton 

Percent of Protein 

Coefficient of Digestion 

Percent Digestible Protein 

Protein on Unit Basis (Equivalent) 

Cost per 100 lbs. of Digestible Protein. 



$28.40 
36.25 
89.00 
32.26 

103.00 
$4.40 



$27.00 
37.81 
88.00 
33.27 

100.00 
$4.05 



The authors conclude that the two feeds have nearly the same 
value in milk prodviction. 

Based upon the comparative percentage of digestible protein and 
assuming clover to be worth $5 per ton, Smith** quotes alfalfa at $8; 
cow pea hay at $8; wheat shorts at $9; wheat bran at $9; Canadian 
peas at $12.50; cow peas at $13.60; skim milk at $2.10; soy beans at 
$21.70; oil meal (old process) at $21.50; gluten meal at $19. When 
the fats and carbohydrates are taken into consideration, assuming 
clover to be worth $5 per ton, gluten meal is worth $23 a ton. 

*A1I taken from Appendix of Henry's Feeds and Feeding except the last, which is from 

No. 43 Maryland Bulletin. 
♦♦Profitable Stock Feeding by H. R. Smith, Page 299. 



BY-PRODUCTS. 



363 



Corn Bran. Corn bran differs from wheat bran in containing 
more crnde fiber and less protein. As a pure product when first put 
out it found but little sale. The hulls, even when ground finely, have 
very little flavor and are not palatable. 




(Courtesy Lowdeii Mfg. Co.) Fig. 134. 

FEED CARRIER IN THE ALLeY OF A COW BARN. 

Gluten Feed. In order to dispose of the corn bran and lo 
lighten the gluten meal, the two are now mixed and a product known 
as gluten feed put on the market. By a close study of the foregoing 
table, it will be noted that the content of protein is lowered about 
5 per cent, while the percentage of crude fiber and ash is increased. 
This change widens the nutritive ration. 

According to tests made at the New Jersey Station*, loo pounds 
of milk were produced for 86.40 cents with gluten feed, when fed m 
conjunction with wheat bran, cottonseed meal, corn silage, and corn 
stalks. 

Corn Oil Meal. — Corn Oil Cake. The residue remaining 
after all but about 10 per cent of the oil has been extracted, is 
known in the slab form as it comes from the press as "corn oil cake," 

*Bulletin No. 204, New Jersey. 



364 



CORN. 



as differentiated from "oil cake," the slabs from linseed oil factories. 
The English and Scotch live stock breeders use this cake in large 
amounts, because they are reasonably sure it has not been adulterated. 
The ground form, "germ oil meal," recognized as different, from "oil 
meal" or "linseed meal," is used mostly east of the Mississippi river. 
This product is \ery uniform in composition and contains a large, 
amount of ash. 

Starch Feeds. Often with smaller glucose factories located 
in districts where considerable feeding is carried on, the by-products 
are sold collectively under the head of "Starch Feeds." Sometimes 
they are taken from the factory in the wet condition. They are in 
such case known as "wet starch feeds" or "wet glucose feed" and are 
variable in percentage of digestible nutrients. When dried they may 
be mixed Avith other feeds. 

Hominy Chops. The hull, germ, and the starchy refuse from 

the hominy factory, are sold collectively under the term "hominy 

chops." Because of a uniformity in the composition of this feed it is 

Hominy verv popular on the market. This fact is evident from tests at Geneva, 

chops - I ' 

10.6 per cent Xcw York.* The average of 7 samples showed io.6 per cent 

protein • i ^ 11 t i 1 , 

protein and 40 per cent starch and sugar. However, when the screen- 
ings and pieces of cob are returned to this feed, the percentage of 
crude fiber may run as high as 7 per cent. 

Distillers Grains. In tests at the New Jersey Station** thej 
average of 2 samples of corn distiller's grains showed 5.79 peit 
cent water, 33.34 per cent protein, 12.05 per cent fat, and 11.17 per 
cent crude fiber. These were in the dried commercial form. As fed 
at the distillery the solid material is not separated from the slop. In 
this form the percentage of water runs as high as 94 per cent, with 
only 1.90 per cent protein and .9 per cent fat. 

The New Corn Product. Investigations by the*** Maryland Ex- 
periment Station shows that this corn stalk product is much more val- 
uable than the original stalk containing the pith. Not only does it 
contain more absolute nutriment, but the nutriment contained is more 
digestible. 

The following tabulated data from the Maryland Station shows 
the relative feeding values of the new corn product, shredded corn 
fodder, timothy hay, wheat bran, corn blades, and shucks. These 
different feeds were fed to well bred steers and all excrement and 
urine carefully collected for a period of seven days. 

♦Bulletin No. 160, New York (Geneva). 
♦♦Bulletin 193, New .Jersey. 
♦♦♦Bulletin 43, Maryland. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 



365 



POUNDS OF DIGESTIBLE MATTER IN 100 POUNDS. 



Dry 
Bub- 
stance 



Ash 



Pro- 
tein 



Crude 
Fiber 



NitrogtMi 

Frei 
Extract 



New Corn Product . . . . 
Corn Blades and Shucks 
Shredded Corn Fodder. 

Timothy 

Wheat Bran 



Fat 



.Nutri- 
tive 
Ration 



57.6 


1.9 


3.8 


17.3 


32.2 


2.4 


58.8 


1.5 


3.1 


21.8 


30.3 


1.3 


46.8 


1.3 


1.6 


19.0 


23.2 


1.7 


54.6 


1.9 


3.2 


16.6 


30.0 


2.9 


58.6 


2.4 


14.6 


2.4 


35.9 


3.3 



1:14.4 
1:17.7 
1:28.7 
1:16.6 
1:3.1 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. We wish to express our appreciation 
of the valuable information secured from the works of Henry and 
Jordan. Professor H. R. Smith's "Profitable Stock Feeding" has been 
a source of many very practical points, applying especially to western 
conditions. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Report on Chemical Composition of Certain Varieties of Indian 
Corn, 

Ottawa Pulletin No. I2. 
Composition of Maize, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. 50. 
Feeding Cotton Seed, Cottonseed Meal and Corn to Dairy Cows. 

Mississippi Bulletin No. 60. 
Corn Plant, Feeding Value of, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 97. 
Grinding Corn for Cows, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 107. 
Soft Corn, 

Farmers Bulletin No. 210. 
Important Facts About Corn, 

Maine Bulletin No. 17. 
Corn, P.arley and Speltz, Relative Feeding Value of, 

South Dakota Bulletin No. 81. 
Corn and Corn Meal, Relative Value of (for feeding hogs), 

Wisconsin Bulletin No. 45. 
Structure of Corn Kernel and Composition of its Parts, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 87. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CORN FODDER 

When the entire corn plant is cut, allowed to cure by standing in 
shocks, and fed without removing the ears, the name "corn fodder" 
is applied. If the ears are husked from the fodder, ''corn stover'' 
remains. "Fodder corn" refers to corn which has been planted in any 
manner with the intention of securing rather small ears and stalks for 
fodder purposes only. 

Iowa planted 0,4^0,000 acres to corn in 1906. The average yield 
Great loss ' -^' V, , , , , r r , 1 

by leaving vvas 39.5 bushels. If cach acre produced three tons of corn fodder, 
unused 3,235 pounds of stover per acre were lost by husking the 39.5 bushels 
and leaving the stalks, leaves and husks in the field. 



May be 
planted 
thicker 



MANNER OF PLANTING. Thick planting tends to reduce the 
size of the ears and stalk. The entire plant is less woody. Neverthe- 
less, in too close planting the plant often becomes stunted in growth, 
the leaves become yellow and lifeless, and the fodder obtained there- 
from is tasteless and less nutritious. Numerous nubbins are desir- 
able. Checking 4 to 5 kernels to the hill on land inclined to be 
foul, or drilling 6 to 10 inches apart on clean land, will give satis- 
factory returns in most parts of the central states. 



DRILLING VS. HILL PLANTING. 
Average Yields for Four Years at Ohio Station. 



Distribution 1 


1894 


1895 1 


1896 


1897 


4yi-s. 


Av Lbs. 


Ears & Nubs 


of Seed I 


Bu. 


Bu" 1 


Bu. 


Bu. 


gain 


Stover 


%Ears9i:Nub8 


1 kl. every 12 in.. . 


44.21 


52.97 


43.45 


33.28 


33.28 


2,528 


68 


32 


1 kl. " 18 in... 


39.12 


40.45 


30.30 




36.62 


2,229 


77 


23 


2 kls. " 24 in... 


41.19 


54.94 


42.72 


32.72 


43.14 


2,433 


64 


37 


3 kls. " 36 in... 


39.60 


45.01 


42.39 


31.76 


39.69 


2,169 


62 


36 


4 kls. " 42 in... 


38.83 


48.35 


41.68 


29.84 


39.56 


2,250 


56 


44 


4 kls. " 48 in... 


39.90 


50.46 


38.19 




42.85 


2,180 


63- 


37 



Another exiieriment of planting various numbers of kernels per 
hill gave the following results : 

Kernels Per Hill. Yield, Bushels. 
I 47-6 



1/2 



.60.6 



TIME OF HARVESTING. 367 

2 67.0 

2K 77-5 

3 790 

yA 77-7 

4 80.0 

4yi 87.0 

5 88.0 

Experiments repeated three times with Legal Tender, Reid's Yel- 
low Dent, and home-grown seed, conducted by Mr. Fred McCulloch, 
of Hartwick, Iowa, gave the following results : 

Kernels Per Hill. Yield Per Acre, Bushels. 

2 40.0 

3 47-5 

Z'A 56.0 

4 56-0 

One e.xperimcnl by Mr. McCulloch showing yield of grain and 

stover : 

Yield. 
Kernels Per Hill. Grain, Bushels. Stover, Pounds. 

1 28.17 1,620 

2 44-69 2,480 

3 54-53 3.168 

4 57-6 3.616 

VARIETIES. Heavy leafing varieties and those which have a 
tendency to excessive tillering produce more fodder than those vari- some 
eties which have long been selected for grain production only. Vari- ^nVro. 
eties adapted to a given locality furnish the surest returns, although fo'dder"''" 
the southern rank growing kinds produce a great deal of coarse for- 
age. 

TIME OF HARVESTING. An Iowa Test. Bulletin No. 23 of 
the Iowa Experiment Station gives the results of an investigation to 
determine the best time to cut corn fodder. The following conclu- 
sions were reached : 

1. The stover of a crop of corn seems to reach the highest yield 
and the best condition for feeding at the stage of growth indicated by 
a well-dented kernel and the first drying of the blades. 

2. The grain of a crop of corn seems to reach the highest yield 
and the best condition for utility at the stage of growth indicated by 
a well-ripened ear and a half-dried blade, and the best time for secur- 
ing the crop with reference to the highest utility of both corn and 
stover would be found at a stage of ripening between the above. 



368 



CORN. 



3. The loss rcsultinp^ from stover remainin.e^ in the field under 
ordinary stalk-field conditions two months after ripening, amounts 

5r"fc\vmg to about one-half of the dry matter and more than one-half of the 

stover out . . 1 r 1 • 1 

in field total feedmg value. 

4. After the stover has reached the best condition for cutting, 
there is a rapid decline in both yield and feeding value. 

5. There is but little change in the composition of the grain of a 
corn crop in the several stages of ripening; and there is little, if any 
decline in either yield or feeding value after the best condition is 
reached, nor does there seem to be much gain, except a small increase 
in yield after the denting stage of the ears is reached. 

6. No material change occurs in the composition of the corn cobs 
during the several stages of ripening. 

The experiments from \vhich these conclusions were arrived at 
were with five plats of one-fifth of an acre each, of good, well-grown 
field corn, put in shock at intervals of one Aveek, commencing on Sep- 
stover tember 17th and ending October 15th. In addition a plat of equal area 
was left in the field until December 17th, when the stalks were cut 
as in shocking and weighed and sampled for analysis. Of stover, 
plat No. I, in earliest cut, yielded 2 tons per acre; the second plat, 
2.12 tons per acre; the third and fourth plats each, 2.2 tons per acre; 
the fifth plat, 1.77 tons per acre, and the last plat, which was left stand- 
ing until December 17th, 1.2 tons per acre. 

As to the grain, plat No. i yielded 53.6 bushels of ear corn per 
acre; plat No. 2, cut a week later, 57.9 bushels ; plat No. 3, 63.6 bush- 
els ; plat No. 4, 64.3 bushels ; plat No. 5, 60.3 bushels. (The yield from 
the plat that was left until December 17th is, for some reason, not 
given.) 

Increase in Nutrients During the Stages of Maturity. 

The following table gives the relative amount of water and dry 
matter in the corn crop at different stages of maturity and shows the 
loss accompanying the cutting of fodder when too green. The experi- 
ment was conducted by Todd, of New York (Geneva) Station. 



Yield in 



Yield in 
corn 



TOTAL YIELD AND AMOUNT OP WATER 
AN ACRE OF CORN. 



AND NUTRIENTS IN 





July 30th 
In Tassel 


August 9th 
In Silk 


August 21st Sept Jth 
Milk Stage \f--d 


Sept. 23d 
Fully Ripe 


Total Green Crop. 
Water 


18.045 
61,426 
1,619 
239.8 
514.2 

653.9 

72.2 

138.9 


25,745 
22,666 
3,078 
436.8 
872.9 

1,399.3 
167.8 
201.3 


32,600 
27,957 

4,643 
478.7 

1,262.0 

2,441.3 
228.9 
232.2 


32,295 
25,093 

7,202 
643.9 

1,755.9 

4,239.8 
260.0 
302.5 


28,460 
20,542 

7,918 
677.8 

1,734.0 

4,827.6 
314.3 
364.2 


Dry Matter 

Albuminoids ..... 

Crude Fiber 

Nitrogen-Free 

Extract 

Ether Extract 

Ash 



CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. 



369 



The following table further shows an increase in dry matter as 
maturity advances : 

Milk Glazed Ripe Increase in 

August 21 St, September 7th, September 23d, Dry Matter. 

4,643 pounds, 7,202 pounds, 7,918 pounds, 3,275 pounds. 

Not only is there an increase in total dry matter as period of matur- 
ity advances, but the digestible materials, especially protein and carbo- 
hydrates, arc deposited in larger percentages, as shown by the follow- 
ing tables : 

ALBUMINOID AND AMIDE NITROGEN OF THE MATURING CORN CROP. 
New York (Geneva) Station. 



Date 


Stage of Maturity 


Albuminous 
Nitrogen 


Amide 
Nitrogen 


Total 
Xitrogen 


July 30th, 
August 6th, 
August 21st. 
September 7th, 
September 23d, 


Tasseled, 
Silked. 

Kernels in Milk, 
Corn glazed. 
Corn ripe. 


27.4 
44.6 
66.4 

78.5 
91.1 


11.0 
25.2 
17.3 
24.5 
17.4 


38.4 

69.9 

77.6 

103.0 

108.5 



This table shows that there is a steady increase in the album- 
inoid nitrogen, in digestible form, while the amide nitrogen fluctu- 
ated at the different periods, but was less at time of ripening than at 
earlier dates. 

INCREASE OF CARBOHYDRATES IN RIPENING CORN. 
New York (Geneva) Station. 



Date 


Stage of Maturity 


Glucose 


Sucrose 


1 Starch 


July 30th, 


Tasseled, 


58.3 


9.1 


122.2 


August 6th. 


Silked, 


300.4 


110.8 


491.3 


August 21st. 


In milk. 


665.0 


129.0 


706.7 


September "ith. 


Glazed, 


720.2 


95.1 


1,735.0 


September 23d, 


Ripe. 


538.4 


148.9 


2.852.9 



Of these changes, Todd writes : 

"The total starch per acre increased more than twenty-three 
times between tasseling and harvesting, a period of 55 days. From the 
stage of glazing corn until full ripening, the increase in dry matter was 
716 pounds, the increase in nitrogen-free extract, 587 pounds., while 
the increase of sugar and starch was 989 pounds, or greater by 273 
pounds than the entire gain in crop. That is, much of the nitrogen- 
free extract, which, at period of glazing of corn, was in the transitory 
state, had been translocated and transformed into sugars and starch." 

Jordan studying this same subject states: 

"Owing to the relatively large production of sugars and starches 
in the late stages of growth, a pound of the dry substance of the 



370 



CORN. 



mature, well-cared corn plant possesses a higher nutritive value than 
at any earlier stage of growth." 

From the above scientific findings as a basis, it is advisable not to 
cut fodder until well eared and in the glazing stage. 

♦CHEMICAL COMPOSITION' OF GRAINS OF CORN AT DIFFERENT STAGES 

OF MATURITY. 

Analysi-s of One Complete Row of Kernels from Ears Harvested on Different 

Dates. 



Dates of 


1 September 1 


September 


September 


September 


October 


October 


Harvest 


1 5, 1906 1 


12, 1906 


19. 1906 


26. 1906 


3, 1906 


1 10. 1906 


Water 


48.47 


39.52 


33.61 


31.33 


24.54 


19.35 


Proteids .... 


7.59 


7.35 


7.14 


7.05 


6.98 


7.10 


Carbo- 


1 












hydrates . 


.| 40.72 


49.90 


56.05 


58.42 


64.58 


69.30 


Fats 


.| 1.80 


2.03 


2.09 


2.16 


2.83 


3.15 


Ash 


.| 1.42 


1.20 


1.11 


1.04 


1.07 


1.10 



♦CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF COB AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF 

MATURITY. 



Dates of 


1 September 


September 


September 


September 1 


October 1 


October 


Harvest 


1 .■;. 1906 


l'>, 1906 


19, 1906 


26, 1905 1 


3,1906 I 


10. 1906 


Water 


63.94 


40.40 


36.28 


35.43 1 


37.18 


38.38 


Proteids .... 


.90 


1.01 


.42 


.52 1 


.32 


.43 


Carbo- 


1 












hydrates . 


.| 34.31 


57.75 


62.79 


63.87 1 


62,30 


60.96 


Fats 


.| .37 


.27 


.19 1 


.12 1 


.15 


.19 


Ash 


.! .48 


1 .57 


.32 


.06 1 


.05 


.04 






METHOD OF HARVESTING. For many years corn fodder 
was cut by hand. A man with long arms, a steady stroke, and an 
intelligent understanding of shocking, could thus cut and shock daily 
By hand from 50 to 75 shocks each ten hills square. Some men have cut as 
high as 100 such shocks. The rate paid was usually five cents per 
shock ten hills square. Larger shocks cost correspondingly more. 

Later, a number of patent devices appeared for cutting corn. Sleds 
or low platforms on wheels with blades on the sides were used. One 
machinery horsc drew this down between two rows and two men sat on the 
machine to catch the stalks as they were cut. When an armful was 
gathered the horse was stopped and the men then carried the cut corn 
to shocks arranged at convenient intervals through the field. An- 
other machine cut the corn and shocked it over a form on a platform to 
the rear. When a shock was completed a crane lifted it and .swung it 
oflf to the ground. 

Corn fodder harvested in Iowa and the corn states today 'is cared 
corn for by means of nnproved machinery — the corn binder and the corn 

binder 

♦Taken from the thesis of D. Bustemante. 



HARVESTING MACHINERY. 



171 



shocker. The advantage and preference lie with the corn binder 
chiefly for the following reasons. The shocker, so called, does not 
make shocks that are large enough, and it is a heavy, cumbersome ma- 
chine. The fodder is in a less suitable form to be handled and there 
is much more loss due to exposure. The advantage of having the fod- 
der in bundles is greatly in favor of the work of the corn binder. Only 
about one-half as much can be cut in one season as with a corn binder. 




(Cmirli-sy Intcrnatioiitil ll;ir\ I'sler Company.) 

Fig. 135. 

CORN BINDER AT WORK. 

This mnchine is used to cut standing corn that is to be saved for the fodder 
or ensilage. 



Probably among corn harvesting machines the corn binder has 
proved itself the most economical and useful to the farmer. When we a saving 

iu time 

compare it with the primitive methods we find that it is invaluable to and labor 
the corn raiser who harvests for fodder or ensilage. The period wheu 
corn fodder is just right for ensilage or fodder is only a few days 
in duration. Here the corn binder has a decided advantage, for with 
it three men and two teams can put seven acres into the shock in one 
day, while by the hand method one acre per man is considered a fair 
day's work; thus a man is able to cut and shock twice as much by the 
use of the corn binder as against hand methods. 

The life of a corn binder will be good for i,ooo acres. The first 
cost is about $125. Allowing $50 for repairs, it will amount to $175. ^ durable 
or on the basis of 1,000 acres the machine cost will be about 20 cents implement 
per acre. Allowing $2.00 per day for men, $1.50 per day for each 
team, and about 50 cents per acre for twine, the approximate cost of 



372 CORN. 

cutting and shocking by hand and with a corn binder for one day will 

be as follows : 

Binder. Hand. 

Three men $6.00 $6.00 

Two teams 3-00 

Twine 4-5<^ 

Machine wear 1.80 

Board for men i.oo i.oo 

Totals $16.30 $7.00 

Acres cut 9 3 

Average cost per acre 1.81 2.33 

This shows a saving of about 52 cents per acre in favor of the corn 
binder. 




(Courtesy Iiiterniitioiial Harvester Company.) 

Fig. 136. 

Corn Harvester and Shocker. 
Used to cut and shock corn fodder with a minimum of labor. 



While the saving is not so noticeable it will be seen that the more 
convenient condition the fodder is in for handling will reduce the com- 
parative cost in preparing for feeding later on in the season. 



SHOCKING CORN FODDER. 



373 



Shocks 

should 

be of good 

size 



Method 

of 

shocking 



SHOCKING OF FODDER CORN. Much loss is usually en- 
tailed by shocking corn fodder in a careless, slipshod manner. It is a 
common sight to see from 25 to 75 per cent of the shocks in a field 
nodding their heads and sprawling about upon the ground. Such 
work is due to carelessness and may be easily overcome. Shocks 
should be made of good size so that little loss from leaching and 
weathering is entailed. It is best to have two men working together, 
so that they may assist each other in getting the shock started, as 
this is the important point in good shock making. If very green the 
bundles should be allowed to lie upon the ground after cutting so as to 
permit of some curing before shocking. This should not be allowed to 
go far enough to cause the leaves to become brittle. 

If the corn is fairly ripe it may be shocked as soon as it is cut. 
The shocks should be set in an upright position, and the tops well com 
pressed together with a quarter-inch rope which has a ring or hook 
m one end. A shock to stand well must be braced from all sides 
and when the bundles are set up the butts should be placed down with 
some force and not thrown at the shock in a careless manner. A jack 
may be used to advantage in getting the shock started. A shock 
should contain from 30 to 40 bundles, depending somewhat upon the 
size and dryness. 

In commenting upon his method of shocking corn, Mr. John 
Gould, in writing to the Ohio Farmer in the fall of 1904, says, "The 
bundles as delivered by the harvester are left on the ground a short 
time to cure out and then the job commences. First, a bundle is laid 
on the ridge of a row, as that is usually a trifle raised above the level. 
Another bundle is then laid exactly crosswise of this, and this adding th^ ^°^ 
of crossed bundles goes on until the "X" is four or more feet high, as 
this "X"-making goes on the tops and butts of the bundles are reversed 
so that the top is always covering a butt below it which makes a per- 
fect roofing in the angles of this." 

When a shock is well put up it should stand a whole year without 
any lodging. If well closed at the top little loss will result from 
penetration of moisture and the fodder when taken out of the shock 
will be fresh and green in color. 

YIELD. Four tons of cured corn fodder is a good yield for an 
acre. Almost one-half of the weight will be in the ears. That pro- 
portion varies with the season, stage of maturity, variety, and thick- 
ness of planting. 

With thick planting the yield of stover is greater, also the propor- 
tion of stover to grain. In a test at the Illinois Station, corn planted 



bhock 



374 



CORN. 



in hills 3 inches apart yielded 3.6 tons of stover to i of grain, 

while tha planted 12 inches apart yielded 1.3 tons of stover to i ton 

VplS; of grain. The former yielded 59 bushels per acre, 13 of which were 

governed Rood and 46 poor. The corn planted 3 inches apart in the row 

*cut"n"8 yielded about 600 pounds more digestible matter per acre than that 

12 inches apart. Too much importance should not be placed on 

this increased yield, for in a dry year, the reverse might have resulted. 

The fact that 46 bushels out of 59 produced in the corn 3 inches 

apart were poor in quality, is an important consideration. 




(Courtesy Iowa State College.) P^i'i^. 137. 

CORN IN THE SHOCK. 



A well 
drained 



METHODS OF FEEDING CORN FODDER. Feeding Whole. 

Bound corn fodder is much more conveiiienlly handled than that 
which is loose. When fed on the hillside in the pasture the bands 
^ *" need not be cut. This practice has the advantage of keeping the waste 
stalks away from the barnyard, besides aiding very much in the 
spring of the year in holding the moisture which would otherwise run 
ofT. Some waste follows the feeding of corn fodder on the ground, 
but in dry winter weather it furnishes a means of drawling breeding 
stock out for exercise. 



SHREDDING. 



375 



Many lar^^e and successful cattle feeders start steers on feed by p^^ 
this means. By nosing over the fodder a taste of the corn is acquired feeders*^ 
and soon grain in bunks can be supplied. By this time only sufficient 
fodder should be fed to act as a roughage ; otherwise the waste is 
excessive. When fed in the barnyard, a manger with planks or poles 
arranged horizontally gives the best satisfaction. 

Shredding. 

I'odder cutters which clip the stalk and leaves into inch lengthfi 
have been used to a limited extent. The shredder, which tears the 
stalk into linear strips, crushes the leaves and husks the ears, is very shredded 
much used at present. Some machines husk the corn and elevate it more 
sei)arately, leaving but the shredded stover. Fodder which has been handled 
shredded is usually blown or elevated into the barn or else stacked 
in a feeding rack so that it can be fed without a second handling. 




(.lurtesy Iowa State C'olle?*'. ) Fig. loJ 

HUSKER AND CUTTER. 
Used for lemoving the ears and cutting fcdder which has been shocked in the 
field. 

Corn fodder is very unsatisfactory to handle in the stable, 
and for this reason farmers have resorted to shredding, which 
consists in cutting up the fodder into very short fragments about 
one and one-half to two inches, or somewhat longer. When the fod- 



1 



376 CORN. 

der is in this condition it may be blown by the machine into the barn 
or onto a high stack outside. It is more easily handled when thus 
cut up finely. The parts not eaten by the cows or young stock are 
shoved out of the manger and utilized as bedding. For the purpose of 
used for soaking up the liquid portions of animal excreta nothing can excel 
* shredded fodder. Professor Henry, of Wisconsin, found very satis 
factory results in feeding shredded fodder. He states that there was 
a saving of 24 per cent by feeding in the shredded form. 

Not only does shedding put the fodder in better condition, but it 
is a labor-saving device in that it husks out the ears of corn that the 
corn fodder contains. 

Corn fodder when shredded should be in a well cured, dry condi- 
tion. It should not contain over 25 per cent of moisture. If it is put 
in too wet there will be an immense amount of heating and much 
loss. 

Cost of Shredding. 

"Buff Jersey," in lloard's Dairyman, g"i\'es cost of shredding lO 
acres of fodder. 

Three men and teams at $2.50 for 13/2 days. . .$11.25 

Two men in field at $1.50 for i^ days 4.50 

One man at crib at $1.50 for 1J/2 days 2.25 

Engine and two men 10.00 

Board of men 3.00 

Coal 4.50 

Total $35.50 

By 425 bushels corn husked at 3 cents 12.75 

By 25 tons fodder at $2.00 50.00 

$62.75 
Saved by shredding 27.25 

The "Breeder's Gazette" of December 6, 1905, gives tlfe opinions 
of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio men, who furnish some data on the 
shredding of corn fodder. 

In shredding, the expense runs about as follows, according to the 
Illinois correspondent : 

Per Acre. 

The Shredder $1.20 

Loading and hauling i.oo 

Cribbing corn 15 



Total $2.25 



I 



LOSSES IN CORN FODDER. 



377 



As to the feeding value this man states that it may take the place 
of timothy hay very successfully in any ration, for the part eaten is ^^"'^**«* 
nearly as valuable. Some complaint is made by farmers on account of hl^°*^^ 
the heating of the shredded fodder, but if the heating does not go too 
far it is not very detrimental. 

Some of the advantages of shredding are a decided increase in the 
amount of roughage, a better preservation of food stuff, economy of 
storage, the corn husking is done more easily and cheaply, and the has""^****^ 
farmer is insured a good supply of bedding. Furthermore, a farmer ^^^^^^^^^ 
following out such a system is able to keep more and better stock upon 
the same area of land. 

The Indiana farmer says in part: "In Clark County shredding of 
fodder is esteemed very highly, not so much because of its increased 
value, but because it fulfills the foregoing advantages so well. The 
operation of husking and shredding is performed at one operation and 
is much cheaper and more economical than the old systeni of cutting 
and husking from the shock by hand." 

The Ohio party says that he considers shredded fodder a valuable 
form of roughage when preserved in a good condition. Shredding 
is not done until the sap is well dried out of the stalk, as this insures 
good kceiiing qualities. When filling the mow with shredded fodder should b 

stored 

it is "well scattered and sprinkled with salt. The application of salt in bam 
aids in the curing and makes the fodder more palatable for the stock 
to eat. Shredded fodder is much better kept in the barn, although 
many times it is made into a high stack out of doors, and fed by simply 
pushing or pitching the feed into an open rack where the cattle can 
reach it. 

Our own experience tells us that in order to make shredding profit- 
able we must have the best quality of fodder and a good yield of grain, 
so that the husking and preparation of the fodder is done at the least 
possible expense. We can hardly agree that fodder containing a small 
per cent of corn will yield much profit by shredding. 

Threshing Corn Fodder. 

Threshing of corn which has been followed heretofore has given 
away to the use of regular corn machinery, such as the shredder and 
corn busker. This system consisted in running the corn fodder through Threshing 
an ordinary threshing machine, which left the grain in a shelled form 
ready for feeding purposes. The threshed stalks were either run into 
the barn or into a stack much the same as straw from threshed grain. 

LOSSES IN CORN FODDER. Considerable loss occurs in fod- 
der exposed to weather conditions in washing and bleaching and by 



378 



CORX. 



left In 
i.eld 



Usual 

method 

a wasteful 

practice 



Green corn 

fodder 

lelisbed 

by colts 



More 

economloal 

than 

timothy 

hay 



the wind blowing the leaves away. This brings uj) the question of 
shredding as a means of saving and preservation. 

Henry Wallace, of \\'allace's Farmer, writes that 2 tons of 
shredded fodder in tlie early fall are worth 3 in the field, February 
1st. exposed tt) the weather, i)rovided, of course, that the early shred- 
ded fodder was put in the barn free from dew' or rain. It is the rain 
and dew on stored hay and fodder and not the sap they contain that 
makes conditions favorable for the action of bacteria, resulting in fer- 
mentation. 

Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" has the following paragraph on the 
subject of "Loss in Fodder:" 

"We are told of a loss of nearly oncrfourth of dry matter and pro- 
tein which the crop contained at harvest time, by preserving corn 
forage in the usual manner. This seems incredible, but the subject 
has been studied by too many Stations with unanimity of results to 
admit of further question. Cooke has shown that heavy losses occur 
in shock corn in the dry climate of Colorado. The substances lost 
through wasting are protein and nitrogen-free extract (sugar, starch, 
etc."), the more valuable portions of the forage. Now, it is not possible 
to entirely prevent the losses by placing the cured fodder under shelter 
or in the stack, for it has been found that the forage continues to 
waste even under these favorable conditions." 

FEEDING VALUE OF CORN FODDER. Fodder corn grown 
so thickly as to allow only the formation of nubbins, furnishes for the 
farmer one of the cheapest and best forms of roughage obtainable for 
horses, mules and colts. Green corn fodder wdien fed in liberal 
quantities to work horses during the late summer months is greedily 
eaten. During the winter months the farmer will find that the colts 
relish good green corn fodder much better than do the cattle. It is less 
dusty and there is much less danger in feeding it to horses than there 
is in feeding musty hay. The leaves contain considerable nutriment 
and will be entirely cleaned up when fed in the manger, rack, or in the 
open upon the frozen ground. When the farmer compares the value 
of corn fodder in contrast to timothy hay, considering the amount that 
may be grown, he must come to the conclusion that it is one of the 
most economical as well as most nutritious forms of roughage that can 
be produced upon the farm. 

Corn fodder also furnishes one of the best substitutes for ensilage 
that has yet been found. When corn fodder is harvested at the right • 
time it furnishes a feed for cows that will not only be relished by them, 
but that will result in a good flow^ of milk. The corn fodder must be, 
however, preserved in large shocks and stored in a shed of some sort 



CORN FODDER VS. SILAGE. 



379 



to protect it from the bad effects of stormy weather. If corn fodder 
be left in the fields the mice may destroy considerable, especially if the 
snow covers the ground and the winter is bad. If much drifting of 
the snow takes place the difficulty of getting the fodder is quite an 
item of labor. The ordinary cow giving an average flow of milk will 
daily consume from lo to 15 pounds of good corn fodder. 

Corn Fodder vs. Silage. 

The following table arranged by Woll gives the average digestion 
coeflicients for corn silage and green and cured fodder corn: 



Forage 



Dry 

Matter 



Ash 



Pro- 
tein 



Crude 
Fiber 



Nitrogen- 
Free Extra c* 



Ether 
Extract 



Corn silage 

Cured fodder corn.. 
Green fodder corn. . . 



1 66 


31 


53 


67 


70 


1 74 


1 66 


34 


55 


66 


69 


1 72 


1 68 


35 


61 


61 


74 


81 



It will be noted in the above table that there is very little differ- 
ence in the digestibility of cured fodder corn and corn silage. Both 
of these forms, however, are less digestible than green fodder. 



Corn Fodder vs. Hay. 

F'rofessor Henry, of Wisconsin, in experimenting with the relative 
value of fodder with mixed ,hav and clover hay for dairy cows, found stover 

. . f should 

that I ton of mixed hay was equivalent m results to 3 tons 01 he utilized 
stover. Also i t(»n of clover hay was equal to a little more than 
3 tons of stover. The hay was of excellent quality. The stover 
yielded 2]/^ tons per acre, besides a 70-bushel corn crop. According 
to this, it would take but 2 or 3 acres of corn to take the place 
of I acre of hay for roughage, and still produce a heavy grain crop. 

Digestible Nutrients in Corn Stover. 

Digestible nutrients in one acre of corn and stover. Average of 
results from four experiment stations. 

Digestible Nutrients. Ears. Stover. Total Crop. 

Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 

Protein 244 83 327 

Carbohydrates ....2,301 1.473 3774 

Ether extract 125 ' 22 147 

Total 2,670 1.578 4.248 

Per cent '63 37 100 



380 



CORN. 



The data is in regard to crops grown for grain, but will compare 
favorably with the average crop in Iowa, cut for fodder, 
contains Pattersou, of Marvland. found that under Maryland conditions 48 

much 01 , . . ' . . , , . • , 1 

the total per cent of the nutrients is in the car and 52 per cent in the various 

nutriment 

other parts of stover. 

Redding, of Georgia, found about two-thirds of nutrients in the 
ear and the remainder in the stover, thus corroborating Armsby's 
results. 

Proportion and Composition of Parts of Corn Stover. 

*\\'eights and Proportions of Parts of Corn Stover. 

Weight. Proportion. 

Pounds. Per cent. 

Leaves and husks 55.0 65.2 

Stalks minus pith 20.7 24.5 

Pith 8.7 10.3 

Total 84.4 loo.o 

Out of a total of 84.4 pounds the leaves and husks constituted 65.2 
per cent, or 55 pounds. 



♦♦COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF CORN STOVER. 





Air-Dry Material 




Percent 
Water 


Percent 
Ash 


Percent 
Protein 


Percent 
Fiber 


Percent 

Xitrogen- 

Free Extract 


Percent 
Fat 


Whole Stover 19.81 4.55 4.19 | 26.02 42.87 

Stover without Pith 12.21 4.58 4.60 28.55 47.35 

Pith 13.27 3.92 3.02 29.15 45.77 


2.56 
2.71 
4.87 



♦♦♦DIGESTIBILITY OF CORN STOVER. 
Coefficients. 



Stover with Pith... |' 
Stover without PithI 



Percent 
Dry 

Matter 

^53.5 
55.1 



Percent 
Organic 
Matter 



56.7 
57.2 



Percent 
Protein 



16.6 
20.5 



Percent 
1" iber 



64.3 
62.7 



Percent 

Nitrogen 

Free Extract 



56.8 
56.6 



Percent 
Fat 



76.2 
72.0 



*Bulletin Xo. 141 New York (Geneva). 
♦♦Composition of Different Parts of Corn Stover. 
***New York (Geneva) No. 141. 



VALUE OF STALK FIELDS. 381 

THE VALUE OF STALK FIELDS. Depending upon the sever- 
ity of the winter and the amount of snow on the ground, the value 
of stalk fields varies. 15 to 25 cents per acre formerly bought the 
best of fields, but in recent years 50 cents to $1.50 an acre have been ^ir/nlm 
paid. Dense foliage and heavy husks produce considerable roughage to° $1"*' 
upon which to winter stock cattle. Close stocking during the winter ^" *"° 
facilitates spring work because less stalks remain upright to bother in 
preparing the ground. If cattle, or horses are left in the fields too late 
in the spring the soil is liable to be puddled by trampling so as to ruin 
the tilth for a whole season. 

TURNING STOCK IN THE UNHUSKED FIELDS. In the 

western part of the corn belt some farmers do not husk their corn at 
all. The crops are fed at home and the finished product turned off in 
the form of beef, mutton, or pork. Since the fields are fenced, there is 
no reason why the animals themselves should not gather their own 
feed, and such is the practice in vogue. In early autumn sheep (pref- 
erably western lambs) are turned in to eat the weeds, grass, and down 
corn. They are then taken out and put on regular feed in the yard, sheep very 
About the middle of October the two or three-year-old fattening steers used 
are let into the field. These cattle have been previously brought up to 
full feed of corn, either old or new, usually newly cut corn. For the 
first two weeks they are only allowed in the field a few hours daily, 
but later are given free access to the crop. The hogs, which are 
spring shoats, are not turned in until three or four weeks later, as they 
make the fodder somewhat distasteful to the cattle. 

Advantages of This Practice : 

First, labor saving in both husking the corn and preparing it for 
feed. 

Second, the husks take the place of hay or shocked fodder which 
may be used as roughage and which costs labor and time. 

Third, all the manure from both cattle and hogs is left right on the 
land in an available form and not deposited in the feed yard to be 
leached out by the rains before it can be spread. Of course, during 
the finishing period of feeding, closer attention and confinement is 
required. There is positively very little or no waste. During the fall 
of 1905, on a farm in western Iowa, forty acres were handled in this 
manner. The following spring there was hardly a grain of corn to be 
seen, the cobs laid on the ground, and the stalks were easily turned 
under by the plow. 



382 CORN. 

INVESTIGATION OF THE PRODUCTION OF CORN 
FODDER IN IOWA 

The following questions were sent to farmers in different parts 
of the state : 

Town County 

1. Is corn which is to be cut for fodder planted at the same time 
as other field corn or a little later? 

2. Is the corn which is to be cut for fodder checked or drilled in 
your locality as a rule? 

3. What varieties of corn are used for fodder? 

4. At what stage of maturity is most of the fodder cut? 

5. What are the average yields in tons per acre? 

6. Is most of the corn cut with the machine or by hand? 

7. How much shredding is done in your locality? 

The following answers were received from the above inquiries: 

Mt. Etna. Adams. 

1. Same time usually. 

2. Checked. 

3. Same as for feeding. 

4. \Mien the leaves commence to dry up just before frost. 

5. About eight tons. 

6. A'lachine. 

7. About half shredded and half threshed. Some is fed without 
either process ; simply hauled from the field to the stock. 

Burt. Kossuth. 

1. The last planting is generally used for fodder, ]:)ut is not 
planted late for that purpose. 

2. Generally checked. Most of our ground is quite weedy. 

3. Common varieties raised for corn. 

4. When most of the ears are well ripened, unless struck by frost. 

5. Estimate eight to ten tons. 

6. Machine. 

7. Only five or six farmers in Burt Township shred every year. 

Alden. Hardin. 

1. Very little planted, especially for fodder. If the season is late 
the late planting is used. 

2. Checked, unless where the first planting failed to grow or was 
drowned. 

3. Ordinary varieties, except the Evergreen fodder have been 
tried by drilling thick, and same was so wormy that many would not 
use it. This year I do not know of any being planted. 

4. Just as it begins to dent, if the season is favorable. 

5. Never weighed. 

6. All with machine (binders). 

7. Just a very small per cent of the acreage — not five per cent. 
No silos here and no ensilage cutters. Fodder is mostly fed corn and 
all, and hauled from the field to the feed lot. 



J 



PRODUCTION OF FODDER. 3S3 

Maquoketa. Jackson. 

1. At the same time here. 

2. Checked here. 

3. The same as for other uses throughout this locaHty. 

4. As soon as they are sure it is all glazed. 

5. Have never given it any thought. 

6. As near as I can tell there is about as much one way as the 
other. 

7. For a few years there was about 25 per cent of the crop, but 
hay was quite plentiful last year, so there was not much shredding 
done. 

Marathon. Buena Vista. 

1. At the same time, with few exceptions in case of being wet 
ground or feed lot. 

2. Two-thirds checked, one-third drilled. 

3. Large varieties. 

4. It is cut just as late as can be without frost. 

5. Ten tons. 

6. With machine ; probably five per cent by hand. 

7. Ten per cent. The last three years there hasn't been very 
much cut for fodder. I think four per cent of the entire crop would 
be large in 15 miles square. 

Danville. Des Moines. 

1. Generally later. 

2. I prefer drilled if free from weeds, but both kinds are used. 

3. Ordinary field corn. 

4. About frost time is the best. 

5. Can't say. 

6. Mostly with a binder. 

7. Most of the fodder is shredded and makes great feed and fine 
bedding for hogs or any stock. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The material for this chapter has been 
drawn freely from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding," and from the re- 
ports of the State Board of Agriculture of Kansas. 

We appreciate especially the way in which the farmers of Iowa 
have co-operated with us in furnishing original information. 



384 CORN. 

We are indebted to Prof. L. G. Michael for his assistance in pre- 
paring the discussion of the chemical composition of corn. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Cornstalk Disease of Cattle, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 58. 

Proportion of Grain to Stover, 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 56. 

Indian Corn as a Fodder Plant, 
Ottawa Bulletin No. 12. 

Cornstalk Disease, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 52. 

Feeding Corn Stover, 

South Carolina Bulletin No. 66. 

Why Pull Your Fodder, 

North Carolina Bulletin No. 104. 

Fodder, 

Arkansas Bulletin No. 24. 

Cornstalk Disease, 

Indiana Circular No. 3. 

Composition and Digestibility of Corn Fodder and Corn Stover 
Illinois Bulletin No. 58. 

Corn for Forage, Varieties for, 

South Dakota Bulletin No. 81. 




CHAPTER XVII. 



CORN SILAGE AND CORN SILAGE 
PRODUCTION 

HISTORICAL 



IN EUROPE. 'I'lie preservation of green food in silos commenced 
more than one hundred years ago. In 1786 Symonds wrote of Italians 
i)reserving fre: h leaves for cattle in casks and pits in the ground. In 

-, , , T- ,. , , ,. , , • , • Silos used 

1S43 Johnston, an Jinglishman, published an article on preserving green over one 

hundred 

clover, grasses, and vetches in pits, basing his statements on observa- years ago 
tions made in Germany. Pits were dug 10 to 12 feet square and 
about as deep, the sides lined with wood, and a clay floor made. The 
green stuff was placed in the pit and plenty of salt scattered over it 
from time to time. When the pit was full, the top was well salted and 
a close-fitting cover of boards was placed over it. Dirt to the depth 
of a foot or so was thrown on the cover to exclude air. In a few 
days, after the contents had fermented and settled, the cover was 
removed, and more green fodder was thrown in, and the cover again ^.^^ ^^^^ 
put on. In commenting on the contents of such a pit, Johnston notes S'^t used 
that the grass when thus fermented had the appearance of being 
boiled, had a sharp acid taste, and was greedily eaten by cattle. 

In England, between i860 and 1870, Samuel Jones stored rye, cut 
green and chopped, and fed the fermented material on an extensive 
scale. 

Adolph Reihlen, a sugar manufacturer of Stuttgart, Germany 
probably stored the first green maize in pit?. He also preserved green ^^^^^ ^^^ 
beet leaves and beet pulp in silos with marked success. He had lived j^^rpmp** 
a number of years in the United States and on his return to ^^r| e^^iy 
Germany experimented with large dent corn, the seed of which 
he carried with him from this country. As the crop did not 
always mature in that climate, the green crop was pitted after the 
manner of the beet refuse. This work was conducted between i860 
and 1870, and the results were published in the German and French 
papers of the time. The use of the silo was strongly urged upon the 



386 



CORN. 



Introduced 

first in 

Michigan 

in 1875 



people of France, and considerable attention was given to the subject. 
Many farmers built silos on the basis of Reihlen's experience. In 
1877, A. GofFart, of France, wrote, a book on "Ensilage," which was 
translated into Iul,u:li^h and pul)lished in New York a year or two later. 

IN UNITED STATES. The first to prepare silage in the United 
States were Manly Miles, of Michigan, who built two silos in 1875, and 
l>ancis Morris, of Maryland, who commenced experiments in this 
line in 1876. One of the earliest experimenters with silage in the 
United States was John M. McBryde, whose investigations began at 
the University of Tennessee in 1879. Several other silos were also 
built by people in the eastern states within the next few years. In 1882, 
in a report on silage by the United States Department of Agriculture, 
statements were published from 91 persons who had silos, 81 of 
which were in Atlantic seaboard states. \o doubt numerous others 
were in use at that time. 

At the present time the silo is found on many thousands of farms 
in the United States, especially in dairy regions, and it may be con- 
sidered a well-established feature in x\merican farm economy whei^e 
stock feeding is practiced. In fact, the use of silage for beef cattle 
is meeting with more and more favor. 

There are many reasons why silage should be utilized more largely 
for the maintenance of farm animals. In almost every soil type and 
every part of the country where grass cannot be profitably produced, 
some of the crops suitable for silage can be grown quite successfully. 
If it happens that there is a shortage in the hay crop, the farmer 
need not sell off his dairy cows if provided with a silo. 

Because grass land has been so cheap and the farm land so pro- 
ductive, the farmers of Iowa and other of the corn states have pre- 
ferred to feed their corn in the form of grain and market it as pork 
and beef. They have feared what they have always termed an experi- 
ment. But now the days of experimentation with silage have passed 
and it is known to be one of the mo:t economical and readily avail- 
able foods for beef and dairy animals that can be obtained in the corn 
states. 

Even in the blue grass sections of the country there are times 
during the year when something must be provided that will be suc- 
culent and palatable. The fact that silage is so succulent makes it 
very valuable as a supplementary food during the dry hot spells which 
are common in the latter part of July and August. 

Because green crops may be preserved in this way, the Iowa 
farmer can by thus handling his forage carry much more stock on 
his land than by any other method practiced today. It means greater 



PRESERVATION OF SILAGE. 387 

returns from high priced land, because milk, butter, and beef can be 
produced more cheaply on silage than on any other food stuflf the co*/"*beit° 

Ir well pro- 

owa farmer grows. vided with 

Another thing that makes silage of so much value is the fact that mi£g '" 
many different crops may be utilized and made much more valuable 
than in any other way. Among the crops most commonly grown for 
silage are corn, clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, sorghum, rye and oats. These 
crops when stored and preserved in an immature state, form "ensilage" 
or "silage." In Iowa, corn, because of its immense production of fol- 
iage and ears, makes one of the most valuable crops to be utilized for crops may 
silage purposes. Cow-peas, clover, sorghum, and the others named, 
may be utilized to fairly good advantage. During rainy spells it is 
often a good plan to put clover and alfalfa into the silo. This pro- 
vides a means of saving a crop which might otherwise be destroyed 
by rain. 

PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVATION. The receptacle or vat in 

which the silage is preserved must be tight enough at the base and 

around the sides to exclude all air. Within a short time after the ^.V*" **' 

silo man 

maize or other green material has been packed in the silo there is a "^^"^ 
great accumulation of heat.* This tends to start an upward current, 
thus excluding the surface air which might enter from above. The 
mass generally reaches its maximum temperature in the course of 
only a few days. This rise of temperature is due to chemical changes 
during which oxidation takes place, producing compounds which did 
not exist in the fresh material. 

The nature of the chemical changes which actually take place is 
very complex and is supposed to be due to the action of ferments 
which are believed to be the same as the ferments which bring about chaAges*^ 
the formation of alcohol, lactic, acetic, and other closely allied acids, d^® to^'* 
Whether the entire degree of fermentation is brought about by the ferments 
ferments or partly by some other agent is not definitely known. Bab- 
cock and Russell have conducted experiments at the University of 
\\'isconsin to determine the causes of silage formation. These in- 
vestigators after careful research have come to the conclusion that 
silage formation is not due wholly to bacterial action. 

The information secured by the investigations of these men led 
them to believe that the respiratory processes and intra-molecular 
activitv within the plant, are the chief causes of the chemical trans- ^^^^^ 
formations which produce carbon dioxide and the evolution of heat fXInce*''* 
within the ensiled mass. Direct respiration appropriates the oxygen 
confined in the air spaces between the pieces of green corn and the 

*A temperature of 145 degrees Fahrenheit has been reported. 



388 



CORN. 



A loss iu 
dry matter 



Acids are 
formed 



Heat is 
generated 



Silpge 

contains 

a higher 

amine 

content than 

green fodder 



All air 
must be 
excluded 



intra-molccular respiration uses the oxygen coml)ined in the tissues. 
Both forms of respiration go on only so long as the plant cells remain 
alive. In regard to bacteria, Babcock and Russell say: "The bacteria, 
instead of functioning as the essential cause of the changes produced 
in good silage, are on the contrary only deleterious. It is only where 
putrefaction changes occur that their influence becomes marked." 

Whatever the changes may be, the chemist will find that corn in 
the real silage form will not contain quite as much dry matter as was 
contained by the original green corn fodder. Just how this deprecia- 
tion comes about is not clear, but is supposed to be due to loss through 
volatile gases. It has been found by chemical analyses that the sugar 
which may be found in the corn fodder when put into the silo almost 
totally disappears. Later on, after the silage has gone through the cur- 
ing processes, acids are present, such as acetic and lactic. These 
changes are similar to the changes which take place in the formation of 
acetic acid in cider and of lactic acid in milk. During the development 
of these processes there is given of? carbon dioxide, and water is accu- 
mulated, due to the breaking down of the carbon compounds. This 
process of combustion actually burns up some of the dry matter. 
This combustion also generates heat, causing a rise of temperature in 
the fermenting mass. 

It is also found by chemical analysis that silage contains a much 
higher amine content than the green corn fodder. Amines are nitro- 
gen compounds formed from the proteid compounds during the pro-* 
cesses of fermentation and are somewhat more indigestible than the 
normal nitrogen compounds. Investigations conducted at the Penn- 
sylvania State College showed that in some cases over one-half the 
nitrogen of silage existed in the amine form. This was between two 
and three times as much as was found in the original green fodder. 
It may be that the same change goes on with field fodder, but it must 
be in a much less degree since little or no fermentation takes place 
where the fodder is well shocked and cared for. 

In order that the above changes may go on and excessive fer- 
mentation be prevented, all air must be excluded. Fermentation will 
consume all the air found in the open spaces and in the cells of the 
undivided particles. Soon the resulting gases will begin to ascend 
and will aid in excluding any entrance of air from above. If access of 
air is allowed, "fire fanging" takes place immediately, leaving a 
charred condition of the ensilage as a result. Damage to this extent 
will make it very unpalatable. 



MANNER OF PLANTING. 389 

TIME TO PLANT. Indian corn, or Zea mays, being a semi 
tropical plant, needs the entire season of Iowa for its development. 
Some varieties are earlier than others. The calico varieties, sweet 
corn and the flinty types ripen in a much shorter season than our 
common dent varieties. They are, however, smaller yielders and 
therefore not used much for silage purposes. The dent varieties de- 
mand from lOO to 120 days of fairly good weather for maturity, in 
order to secure this amount of time the Iowa farmer must plant early 
in May. Corn frozen off in the spring is better than frozen corn in 
the fall. This is a fact worth remembering. 

MANNER OF PLANTING. In growing corn for silage on land 
foul with weeds, checking in hills will be found to be the safest meth- Ground kept 

' ° . cleaner with 

od. In Other words, in order to force the growth along during the checked corn 
summer to insure early maturity, the ground must be kept clean. 

On sod ground, or in fields which are comparatively clean, drill- 
ing may be practiced. With drilling there is more uniformity of size 
in the stalks, and at harvest time the machine runs much more smooth- 
ly because the stalks are cut one at a time. 

When grown in hills there is a tendency for the harvester to cut 
by jerks as it strikes the stalks, then ease up between each hrll. 

In the corn belt the rows are usually planted 3 feet 6 inches apart. 
This is the most suitable distance for ease of cultivation with modern 
farm tools. 

THICKNESS OF PLANTING. There are Objections to Corn Be- 
ing Planted Too Thick for silage purposes. 

First, the stalks grow up slender, with elongated cells which lack 
substance. When put in the silo the whole mass shrinks badly. 

Second, the leaves will be scarce, narrow, and lack the dark green 
color. 

Third, the green fodder when cut will be tasteless because being 
grown without sufficient sunlight the vital activities in the leaves 
have not had a chance to perform their functions. 

Fourth, the plants will not withstand heavy winds, the stems being 
slender ami weak. 

When Corn is Planted Too Far Apart. 

First, the stalks grow up rank, the cell walls are heavy, and there 
is too much deposition of indigestible crude fiber. 

Second, there is a tendency toward late maturity because of the 
overabundance of plant food furnished each stalk. 

Third, there is an overproduction of large ears which, when cut 
up in the silage and afterwards fed, are not wholly digested because 



390 CORN. 

/■ 

of iiLsufficicnt roughat^c and succulent material which can be assimi- 
lated with them. 

The Thickness of Planting Will Depend Upon, 

Iwrst, the fertility of the land. 

Second, the amount of rainfall in the region. 

Third, the length of the growing season. \Micre the growing sea- 
son is short, thickly planted corn will mature earlier. 

Fourth, the variety. A rank growing variety which attains con- 
siderable height should be planted just a little thinner than a variety 
with short stalks, because the tall growth shades the lower leaves 
when drilled thickly. 

As a rule, one stalk every 9 to 16 inches will produce the best corn 
for silage purposes. When checking, 3 stalks on land of medium 
fertility and 4 on richer land will be found thick enough when the 
hills are 3 feet 6 inches. 

VARIETIES TO PLANT. When Selecting a Variety of Corn to 
Plant for Silage, Consider That, 

I-'irst. there must be a large yield of foliage which will be succu- 
lent and palatable. 

Second, there should be enough matured ears to raise the percent- 
age of digestible nutrients in the silage. 

Third, the variety must mature early in order to be ready for cut- 
ting before frost and also to have a large content of dry matter. 

Corn harvested on the Experiment grounds of the Iowa State Col- 
sho id^b"^ '^S^' '^" September 27th. immature, slightly dented, mature, and well 
suflicienuy dented, showed a ditYerence in vield (drv weights) per acre of ^6 and 

matured . > . o ' i ^ 

'^2 bushels of grain respectively, with about equal amounts of stover. 
This shows the importance of planting varieties that will mature. 

As an average of several cultural trials. Professor Jordan of the 
Maine Station found a greater amount of green fodder and total 
atnount of dry matter in large southern varieties than in the adapted 
northern varieties. The difference, however, w^as but 175 pounds per 
acre. Considering that an additional 6 1-4 tons more green fodder was 
handled in case of southern varieties, and that the former w-as of a 
mor.e watery nature and more susceptible to fermentation in silo, the 
''^^''"s. northern \ariety was the more profitable. Other northern Stations 

*°"gro^^ ha\e come to the same conclusion. 

varieties Varieties Recommended. 

"Modern Silage Methods", published by the Silver Manufacturing 
Company, of Salem, Ohio, gives the following varieties for different 
sections of the country. "The best varieties for the New England 
States arc the Sanford and Flint corn ; for the Middle States, Learn- 



TIME OF HARVESTING. 391 

ing, White and Yellow Dent; in the Central and Western States, the 
Learning^, Sanford, Flint and White Dent are best adapted. In the commonly 

fiTOWIl ill ' 

south, the Southern Horse Tooth, Alosby Prolific, and other large u. s- 
dent corns are preferred." 

For Canada, Rennie suggests for Northern Ontario, King Phillip's 
North Dakota and Compton's Early Flint varieties ; for Central On- 
tario, the larger and heavier varieties, as Mammoth, Cuban, and Wis- in Canada 
consin Earliest White Dents. A strain of Leaming corn is also being 
grown considerably for silage purposes in southern and central 
Canada. t,' 

King, of Wisconsin, recommends for northern United States the 
earliest maturing dent varieties and the largest flint varieties. The 
flint varieties will stand thicker planting than the dent varieties. lie FUnt 

varieties 

further states that those varieties that will mature ^ to <; stalks win stand 

^ ^ thicker 

per hill 3 y2 feet scpiare will produce more fodder and of better quality planting 
than when i)lanted thinner. 

Soule. of Tennessee, recommends Cooke's Prolific and \"irginia En- 
silage for the south. Cooke's Prolific is a large southern variety, 
bearing from two to six ears per stalk. 
Iowa Varieties. 

Thmughout Imva the larger and medium dents may be grown for L^^ge and 
the most profitable silage. In the northern part of the state the larger dent"for 
flints may be grown for this purpose. Some of the most prominent 
varieties for Iowa are : 

Reid's Yellow Dent, 

Silver Mine. 

Boone County White. 

Legal Tender, 

Leaming, 

Gold Mine, 

Silver King, 

Calico. 
THE TIME OF HARVESTING. As maturity advances the con- 
tent of water is lessened, which, of course, corresponds to an increase Percentage 
of dry matter. The nitrogenous substances and the oil decrease in and%1igar 
comparative ijercentage to the rapid increase in the content of starches wi^t"^^^ 

^ "^ maturity 

and sugars. 

The following table from Professor Ladd of the Geneva Station, 
New York, substantiates the above statement : 



392 



CORN. 



Yields Per Acre 



Tasseled 

July 80 

I Pounds 



Silked 
Aug. 9 



Milk 
Aug. 21 



Glazed 

Sept. 7 



I Pounds I Pounds 



Ripe 

Sept. i» 



Pounds I Pounds 



Gross weight 

Water in crop 

Dry matter 

Ash 

Crude Protein 

Nitrogen-Free Extract 
(Sugar, Starch) . . . 

Crude Fat 

Crude Fiber 



18,045 
16,426 
1,619 
138.9 
239.8 

239.8 

72.2 

514.2 



25,745 
22,666 
3,708 
201.3 
436.8 

436.8 
167.8 
872.9 



32,600 
27,957 
4,642 
232.2 
478.7 

378.7 

228.9 

1,262.0 



32,295 
25,993 
7,202 
302.5 
643.9 

643.9 
260 
2,755.9 



28,460 
20,542 
7,818 
364.2 
677.8 

677.S 

314.3 

1,734.0 



The actual amount of all the constituents increases as the ripening 
process goes on. The deposition of the protein and oil seems to oe 
accomplished early in the season. The stuffing of the cells with starch 
is always later. Hence what' is termed immature starchy corn is not 
d^o°lted ^^^ ^^ ^^^ over supply of starch, but to the lack of it. In other words, 
early the cclls are large and open, giving the shelled grain very little weight. 
Cattle feeders complain that steers do not fatten well on thi§ immature 
corn. Their observations are practical. Fat forming components are 
not present in sufficient quantities. The digestion and assimilation 
of more material is required to obtain an equivalent amount of nutri- 
ment. 

Increase in Food Ingredients. 

Below are presented two tables, one introductory to the other, 
which show the relative increase of the constituents in the maturing 
corn plant : 



[NCREASE IN FOOD INGREDIENTS FROM TASSELING TO MATURITY. 







Stage of 


Maturity 


Experiment Station 


Variety 


First Cutting 


Last Cutting 


1. Cornell, N. Y., 


Pride of the North, 


Bloom, 


Mature 


2. Geneva, N. Y., 


King Phillip, 


Tasseled, 


Mature 


3. Cornell, N. Y., 


Pride of the North, 


Bloom, 1 


Nearly Mature 


4. New Hampshire, 


Average of 4 varieties. 


Tasseled, 


Glazed 


5. Pennsylvania, 


Average of 10 varieties. 


Tasseled, 


Mature 


6. Vermont, 


Average of 2 varieties, 


Tasseled, 


Glazed 


7. Vermont, 


Average of 2 varieties, 


Bloom, 


Glazed 



GAIN IN PER CENT BETWEEN FIRST AND LAST CUTTING. 

Dry Matter Crude Protein Crude Fat Carbohydrates 

1 150 80 129 169 

2 217 134 374 300 

3 289 183 335 662 

4 112 50 84 130 

5 155 

6 1 20 50 

7 204 81 

Averages 193 98 230 265 



MANNER OF GROWING FOR SILAGE. 393 

There is a decided increase in the amount of dry matter as ma- The percent- 
turity advances. Upon this principle the time of cutting should de- matter 

J rr-i r 1 r • • 1 • , increases 

pend. 1 he further reason for postponmg cuttmg is that, m early with 

maturity 
Stages, the sugar is most abundant. Later the sugars are made over 

into starches as the grain develops and mtaures. When the corn is cut 

green the accompanying bacterial fermentation falls most heavily on 

the sugars and the loss is quite decided. It is, therefore, advisable causes°ioss°° 

to put oflf cutting until grain is well formed and sugars changed to "^ sugars 

starch. 

Professor King, of Wisconsin, states that corn should be well ma- 
tured and well eared and contain not less than 30 to 35 per cent of 
dry matter. If corn contains but 20 per cent of dry matter, there will ^ater 
be much greater loss either as silage or as fodder, due to the greater g^owt'h of 
fermentation. Large amounts of water in silage are more favorable 
to growth of bacteria than the concentrated juices found in the later 
stages of the corn plant. 

While corn should not be cut too early, neither should the cutting 
be delayed too long. It should be cut somewhat earlier for silage than c^j.^ should 
for fodder to be left in the field. The corn for silage should be cut proper time 
when the grain is past the dough stage, well dented, and beginning tc 
glaze. The foliage at this time will be green and succulent — not 
coarse and pithy — and will still retain a superabundance of watery 
materials to he handled. 

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE GROWTH OF CORN FOR SILAGE^ 

Town County 



1. Do you drill or check the corn which you intend to cut for 
silage? 

2. Do you plant the silage plot at the same time as your regular 
field, or a little later? 

3. What varieties of corn do you use for silage? 

4. At what stage of maturity do you cut the corn for silage? 

5. What was the date of filling your silo in the fall of 1907? 

6. What was the yield of green fodder per acre at that time? 

7. What percentage of loss do you figure in silage? 

8. To what class of stock are you feeding this silage? 

* These inquiries were sent to farmers of Iowa who have silos. 



394 CORN. 

The followiii.u: answers were received from the above inquiries: 
Forest City. Winnebago. 

1. Drill. 

2. As soon as we can after planting other corn. 

3. Reid's Yellow Dent. 

4. When most of it is dented; that is, commence cutting then, 
but it takes six to ten days to fill. 

5. I think we commenced the 23d of September. 

6. I do not know, only it takes from 11 to 13 acres to fill the 
silo, which is about 19x28 feet. 

7. Very little. Most of the loss is at the top before we commence 
to feed. 

8. Cows and young cattle that we are feeding for market. 

Cedar Falls. Black Hawk. 



2 

3 

4 

be w 

5 
6 



Check. 

Generally the last planting. 

Never have used any but regular field corn. 

When the lower leaves and husk is partly dry. Kernels should 
•ell hardened. Generally leave as long as can without frost. 

Do not remember exact date. One-half day filling before frost. 

Two 12x24 silos filled from fourteen acres. 

Estimate 1906, 10 per cent; 1907, 20 per cent. Believe increase 
caused from frozen silage. 

8. Cattle, hogs and horses, with good results in each and every 
instance. 

Bedford. Taylor. 

1. List preferable; drill 8 inches. 

2. Just as it happens. 

3. None special. Have yellow now. 

4. Full ripe for fodder. Kernel glazed, but stalk and blades yet 
juicy. Think more often is cut too green. 

5. October loth. 

6. Could not tell — about 12 acres — equals 100 tons. 

7. 2 per cent. 

8. Young Angus bulls and heifers, calves and cows generally. 
Sheep and brood sows. Some to horses, but limited amounts, as too 
much tends to purging. 



GROWING CORN FOR SILAGE. 395 

Buckingham. Tama. 

1. Usually drill. 

2. Sometimes. 

3. Same as for main crop. 

4. Aim to cut when just going out of dough. 

5. Twentieth of September, late. 

6. For 1907 about 9 tons; 1906, 14 tons. 

7. Varies with different years so much that we cannot make any 
correct estimate. 

8. Holstein-Friesian cows and young stock. 

Lake View. Sac. 

1. Have tried both ways, but like checking better as it can be 
kept cleaner. 

2. At the same time. Sometimes first or last, as it comes handy. 

3. The same as for regular crop ; about like Reid's Yellow Dent. 

4. It makes the best ensilage cut just at denting and glazing, 
when the husks are turning bnnvn. I would rather have it a little 
ripe than t(^o green. 

5. September 9th to i8th. Had some trouble with machinery. 
Corn about right September 15th. 

6. r^rom 13 to 15 tons, 6 or 7 acres, and for a 90-ton silo, and it 
was well filled and partly settled. 

7. Last year not over 2 per cent spoiled. Nothing in feeding. 

8. Dairy cows, calves and young stock. 

Ankeny. Polk. 

Check. 

Plant same as for cribbing. 

Reid's Yellow Dent. 

Kernels well glazed and lower leaves on stalks beginning to 



I 
2 

3 
4 

1 ) row 

5 
6 

7 
8 



About first of October. 

About 12 tons. 

About five per cent. 

To dairy cows mostly, but feed some to my mules and colts. 



Waterloo. Black Hawk. 

1. I checked the past two years. 1908 I drilled. 

2. The same time as regular field corn-. 

3. Common field corn. 

4. When it is about ready for shock corn. 

5. Cannot give date, but just after the first frost. 

6. About nine tons per acre, 1907; 1906, 12 tons. 

7. About 5 inches on top of silo is all my loss for two years. 

8. Milk cows, young cattle, calves, brood mares, colts and sheep 
and brood sows. 



396 



CORN. 



West Union. Fayette. 

1. Drill one stalk in a place as a thick as I can and rows three feet 
apart. 

2. First that I plant I use for silage. 

3. The same that I use for regular corn crop. 

4. When dented and husks begin to turn white. 

5. Don't just remember, but think about September i8th and 19th. 

6. Filled 14x28 silo with 4^ acres corn. 

7. Don't think there is over seven per cent. 

8. Milk cows, young stock, sheep, hogs, and a little to the horses 
and chickens. 

Davenport. Scott. 

1. Check or drill as condition of ground. 

2. At the same time as other corn. 

3. I always have used Reid's Yellow Dent in mine. 

4. When the husks begin to dry. 

5. September 25th. 

6. I did not figure up the yield per acre. 

7. Last year I didn't lose more than five per cent, but the year 
before about 25 per cent. 

8. Cattle, young and old, and what is a little mouldy or tainted 
to hogs. 



I. 
2. 

3- 

4- 
dead. 

5- 
6. 

7- 
8. 



Manchester. Delaware. 

Check. 
Same time. 
Common field corn. 
When ears are dented and glazed and lower leaves on stalk 



About 12 to 15 tons per acre. 
None excepting about foot on top. 
Everything on the farm except work horses. 



METHOD OF HARVESTING. Cutting by hand is still prac- 

corn binders ticed. The armfuls are laid on the ground ready to be loaded. Bound 

used corn IS more conveniently handled, especially at the machine. A low 

truck wagon with flat rack facilitates the work of loading. A rack 

hung from the axles of a wagon is advocated as the best means of 

hauling corn to the silo. 



SIZE OF SILOS. 



397 



SIZE OF SILOS. 

Corn silage weighs on an average about 40 pounds per cubic foot. 
Thus a silo with a depth of 30 feet, having a diameter of 16 feet, will 
hold around 1 19 tons. 

The following table gives the capacity of dififerent sized silos: 

Capacity of Round Silos. 

APPROXIMATE CAPACITY OF CYLINDRICAL SILOS, FOR WELLr 
MATURED CORN SILAGE, IN TONS.* 



Depth of 




























Silo, Feet 










[NSIDE DIAMETER 


OP SILO. FEET. 








1 10 


12 


14 


15 


16 


18 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


20 


26 


38 


51 


59 


67 


85 


105 


115 


127 


138 


151 


163 


177 


21 


28 


40 


55 


63 


72 


91 


112 


123 


135 


148 


161 


175 


189 


22 


30 


43 


59 


67 


77 


97 


120 


132 


145 


158 


172 


187 


202 


23 


32 


46 


62 


72 


82 


103 


128 


141 


154 


169 


184 


199 


216 


24 


34 


49 


66 


76 


87 


110 


135 


149 


164 


179 


195 


212 


229 


25 


36 


52 


70 


81 


90 


116 


143 


158 


174 


190 


206 


224 


242 


26 


38 


55 


74 


85 


97 


123 


152 


168 


184 


201 


219 


237 


257 


27 


40 


58 


78 


90 


103 


130 


160 


177 


194 


212 


231 


251 


271 


28 


42 


61 


83 


95 


108 


137 


169 


186 


204 


223 


243 


264 


285 


29 


45 


64 


88 


100 


114 


144 


178 


196 


215 


235 


265 


278 


300 


30 


47 


68 


93 


105 


119 


151 


187 


206 


226 


247 


269 


292 


315 


31 


49 


70 


96 


110 


125 


158 


195 


215 


236 


258 


282 


305 


330 


32 


51 


73 


101 


115 


131 


166 


205 


226 


258 


271 


295 


320 


346 



♦Modern Silo Methods. 



Amount of Silage Needed. 

With good corn from 12 to 15 tons of silage may be secured per ^^ ^^ ^_^ 
acre. 35 to 40 pounds of silage per day is sufficient when feeding pounds 

cows. feed for 

The following table will be of interest, showing the dimensions ^°'^ 
of silo, capacity in tons, acres to fill, and the number of cows it will 
keep 6 months : 



Dimensions 


Capacitj' in Tons 


Acres to Fill, 15 Tons 
to Acre 


Cows it Will Keep 6 

Months. 40 lbs. feed 

per day. 


10x20 


28 


3 


8 


12x20 


30 


3 


11 


12x24 


49 


3 2-5 


13 


12x28 


60 


4 


15 


14x22 


61 


4 1-2 


17 


14x24 


67 


4 2-3 


19 


14x28 


83 


5 2-3 


22 


14x30 


93 


6 


23 


16x24 


87 


6 2-5 


24 


16x26 


97 


7 


26 


16X.30 


1 119 


8 


30 


18x30 


1 151 


10 1-5 


37 


18x36 


1 189 


12 1-3 


45 



♦Modern Silo Methods. 



398 



CORN. 



hould bo 



FILLING THE SILO. Some money must be expended in purchas- 
ing a substantial silage cutter of large capacity. The price varies from 

$12=; to $200. An attached elevator or blower may be used, accord- 
inouia DO '^ , , , * 1 1 1 ..J 2. 

firmly jnp- to the amount of power at hand. A blower has a tendency to 

packed ° ,01 • j 

separate the coarse and fine material. Several men are required to 
tread continuously in the silo during the filling operation. This is es- 
sential to secure the exclusion of air and in order to compact the en- 
tire mass. Eight horses will supply power enough for ordinary work. 
Teams are cheaper than hiring an engine, engineer, and water boy,, 
besides having to furnish the coal. However, steam is more steady 
power. Gasoline engines are fast becoming serviceable for silo filling. 




v'Oourtisy of Iowa .State College) Fig. 140. 

FILLIXG SILO AT THE IOWA EXPERIMENT STATION. 



COST OF SILAGE. F. D. Coburn estimates the total cost of a 
ton of silage as fdlJDws: 

For cutting and i)ulting in silo, per ton 58-59 cents 

For interest and taxes on silo investment, per ton iO-97 

For insurance and maintenance, per ton 3.66 

Total 73-22 " 

The following table taken from Farmers' Buletin No. 292 shows 
the cost of a ton of silage as estimated on 31 farms: 



COST OF FILLING SILOS. 



COST PER TON OF PUTTING UP SILAGE. 



393 



.Labor 


Team 


Twine 


Fuel 


Engine 


Total 


$0.21 


$0.12 


$0.03 


$0.02 


$0.08 


$0.46 


.23 


.07 


.03 


.03 


.12 


.48 


.22 


.12 


.05 


.03 


.07 


.49 


.21 


.13 


.05 


.04 


.08 


.51 


.22 


.13 


.03 


.03 


.10 


.51 


.25 


.12 


.03 


.02 


.09 


.51 


.20 


.17 


.03 


.05 


.08 


.53 


.23 


.16 


.05 


.02 


.09 


.55 


.25 


.14 


.03 


.02 


.12 


.56 


.29 


.13 


.02 


.02 


.10 


.56 


.26 


.15 


.03 


.03 


.09 


.56 


.24 


.14 


.04 


.04 


.13 


.59 


.27 


.18 


.05 


.03 


.07 


.60 


.28 


.16 


.05 


.03 


.08 


.60 


.28 


.14 


.04 


.06 


.10 


.62 


.34 


.16 


.00 


.05 


.08 


.63 


.28 


.17 


.07 


.03 


.09 


.64 


.36 


.13 


.04 


.03 


.11 


.67 


.33 


.14 


.04 


.07 


.09 


.67 


.25 


.20 


.05 


.03 


.15 


.68 


.33 


.16 


.04 


.03 


.14 


.70 


.35 


.18 


.03 


.03 


.11 


.70 


.33 


.16 


.05 


.03 


.14 


.71 


.28 


.20 


.04 


.03 


.17 


.72 


.44 


.16 


.00 


.02 


.13 


.75 


.36 


.20 


.07 


.03 


.11 


.77 


.34 


.22 


.05 


.04 


.13 


.78 


.42 


.18 


.04 


.06 


.10 


.80 


.38 


.18 


•.06 


.05 


.35 


.82 


.40 


.21 


.05 


.03 


.15 


.84 


.45 


.20 


.04 


.05 


.12 


.86 



COST OF FILLING SILOS IN IOWA. 



I. Town, Manchester. County, Delaware. 

ITEMS. AMOUNTS. 

Size of Silo. 150 tons. Date filled in 1907. Last of Sept. 

iman, team and binder for 2 days $ 15.00 

4 men and teams for 2 1-4 days 30.00 

4 men for 2 1-4 days 1500 

Use of gasoline engine, for 2 1-4 days 10.00 

40 gallons gasoline 7.00 

Twine, 30 pounds at 10 cents 3.00 

Use of cutter for 2 1-4 days 10.00 



Cost per ton, 60 cents. 



$90.00 
Signed : W. J. Davis. 



400 CORN. 

2. Britt. Hancock. 

Size of Silo, 16x26, 108 tons. Date filled in 1907, Sept. 15. 

Cutting $11.00 

Hauling 16.00 

Feeding Cutter 6.00 

Tramping Silage 6.00 

Gasoline 3-20 

Other oils 4° 



$42.60 
Cost per ton, 39 cents. 

Signed : J. F. Bullis. 

3. Bancroft. Kossuth. 

Size of Silo, 16x30, 119 tons. Date filled in 1907, Sept. 28-9. 

Cutting and twine $1300 

6 men and teams 18.00 

Use cutter 5.00 

Use engine and coal 7.50 

4 men to feed machine, etc 8.00 

$51-50 
Cost per ton, 43 cents. 

Signed : A. Mayer. 

Cost per ^"^" average of these results is 57 cents per ton for filling the 

ton ran^^ silo. A farmer in southern Iowa has put Up his silage for less than 

Mventy 5° cents pcr ton. Another Iowa farmer paid in 1906 70 cents per ton. 

cents 

LOSSES OF SILAGE IN THE SILO. The losses in the silo are 

due to fermentation — the action of bacteria on the proteids and carbo- 

Fermentation hydrates. The eflfect is to reduce the more valuable carbohydrates, as 

starches and sugars, and to change a part of the albuminoid nitrogen 

into the amide form, which is indigestible. 

Accompanying this reduction and changing, is the formation of 
acids, causing a sourness. The greener and more watery the silage 
is, the greater the percentage of loss, both in dry matter and in feed- 
ing value. 

The following table, taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding" 
shows the changing of the several constituents in the green fodder and 
silage: 



VALUE OF SILAGE. 



401 



WATER FREE SUBSTANCE OF GREEX CORX AND THE SILAGE MADE 

THEREFROM. 



Constituents 



Ash, pure 

Nitrogenx6.25 

Crude Fiber 

Other Carbohydrates 
Ether Extract .... 



Percent 1881 
Green o-i 
Corn Silage 



5.0 

6.5 

24.2 

62.3 

1.9 



Percent 1882 
Green i „., _ 
Corn Silage 



Percent 1883 
Green 
Corn 



Average Percent 

Green 1 a;i„„„ 

Corn Silage 



5.5 

7.2 

27.4 

57.0 

2.9 



6.1 

8.0 

35.2 

51.0 

2.0 



i.y 

8.9 
35.8 
49.2 

2.3 



3.3 

7.3 

29.3 

57.7 

2.4 



3.7 


4.0 


7.3 


7.26 


33.8 


29.56 


52.6 


57.0 


2.8 


2.1 



4.4 

7.8 
32.33 
52.93 

2.66 



The following table, also taken from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding' 
shows relative losses of dry matter in silage and corn fodder: 



station 



Vermont Report 1889 

Vermont Report 1891 

Vermont Report 1892 

Vermont Report 1894 

New Jersey Bulletin 19 

Pennsylvania Report 1889.... 
Wisconsin Report 1891 (Aver- 
age Four Years) 



Average 



Corn Silage 

Dry Matter I Protein 

Percent Percent 



Corn Fodder 

Dry Matter | Protein 

Percent ! Percent 



14.7 
20.0 
18.0 
20.0 
18.0 
10.0 

15.6 



16.61 



13.0 
11.0 
12.0 

26.5 

16.8 



15.86 



13.6* 

19.0 

18.0 

20.0 

17.3 

21.0 

23.8 



17.0 

9.0 

12.0 

13.8 

24.3 



18.96 



15.22 



•Large shocks. 15.1 per cent for small shocks. 

It will be noted from the above table that the losses are about 
equal in the silage and corn fodder. 

The silage loss includes that waste found in the top layer. This 
loss may be largely prevented by spreading green grass, wet chaff, or 
other covering over the top of the silage. Professor King says on this 
point, that after four years' experience, he is convinced that the total 
losses minus those found on the top and bottom may not exceed lO 
per cent. 

In the above case the fodder was analyzed in early winter. The 
loss in the fodder would increase, the longer it stood and the wetter 
and more unfavorable weather to which it was exposed. On the other 
hand, the maximum loss of silage is reached within a short time after 
siloing. 

VALUE OF SILAGE. In Milk Production. Silage is not a con- 
centrated food stuff. Its value lies in being a roughage in supplying 
succulence. The dairy districts have found silage indispensable for 
winter feed. The Ohio Station conducted an experiment to determine 
the relative value of beets and silage in milk production. This test 
was carried on for four years and showed a gain in milk production mij^^ra 
of 6 per cent per lOO pounds of dry matter fed, in favor of the silage ^'"=*^°° 
rations. Pennsylvania found a similar gain of 5 per cent. The pro- 



Time of 

ma yiTTiTiTTi 

loss 



Silage for 



402 



CORN. 



ficiency of the Jersey over the other herds at the St. Louis test speaks 
well for silage. Such constancy of milk flow was never before known. 

In Beef Production, 

In beef production the Ottawa Experiment Station found that in 
fattening steers a gain of 1.33 pounds per day was obtained from the 
for belf rations of silage and straw, against a daily gain of 1.05 pounds on 
pro action ^^^^^ ^^^^ l^^^. ^yIiq former was also cheaper. The Illinois Station 
came to the conclusion in feeding calves intended for beef production, 
that for equal areas fed, silage produced more rapid and economic 
Corn gains and left the animals in better thrift in the spring, than did 
digested shocked corn. Silage when fed to fattening steers is thoroughly di- 
gested. Shoats following animals thus fed gain but very little. In 
the case of an epidemic of cholera silage is a valuable cattle feed. 

COMPOSITION AND FEEDING VALUE OF CORN SILAGE. 

Corn as used for silage purposes, necessarily contains a high percent- 
age of water. A compilation of the analyses of the American feeding 
stuffs, made by the various experiment station chemists, as given in 
Bulletin No. 11 of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, gives the 
analyses of silage corn as follows: 







Silage Corn. 








Kind of Corn 


1 Water 


Ash 


Protein 


1 Fiber 


Nitrogen- 
■"ree Extract 


Fat 


Dent 

Flint 

Sweet 


78.99 
79.76 
79.08 


1.2 

1.05 

1.26 


1.73 
1.96 
1.86 


5.59 
4.32 
4.42 


11.98 
21.26 
12.92 


.51 
.65 
.46 



From this table we see that the flint corn is highest in protein and 
fat and that sweet corn is slightlv better than the dent corn. These 

Flint corn . . o ^ 

highest in relations remam the same among the flint, sweet and dent corns, 

protein , . . . . 

when the analysis is made of water-free substances, as shown in 



the following table 



Water-Free Silage Corn. 



Kind of Corn 



Ash 



Dent . 

Flint 
Sweet 



5.7 
5.2 
6.0 



Protein 



8.3 
9.7 
8.9 



Fiber 



Nitrogen- 
''ree Extract 



26.3 
21.3 
21.2 



57.1 
60.6 
61.7 



Fat 



2.6 
3.2 

2.2 



Silage Compared with Hay. Jordan, in charge of the Maine Sta- 
tion, compared silage made from the various kinds of corn with good 
hay made mainly from timothy, for milk production. Four cows were 
used in carrying out the experiment. They were first fed hay, then 
hay and silage and then ha}' again. An equal amount of concentrates 



FEEDING SILAGE TO MILCH COWS. 



403 



was given each cow during the experiment. The following interesting 
results were secured : 

Periods. Milk. 

On hay and grain 2-17 to 3-9 21.7 lbs. 

On hay, silage and grain 3-10 to 5-1 1 22.5 lbs. 

On hay and grain 5-12 to 5-25 19.6 lbs. 

It will be noted from the above that there was a decided increase 
when the cows were changed from hay to hay and silage, and a no 
ticeable decrease when they were shifted back to the old ration of hay 

The ultimate effect of the two feeds is shown in the following table. 
Here Mr. Jordan groups the milk yields of the four cows in 14-day 
periods just preceding or following a change in the roughage fed. 

Total Yield of Milk, Four Cows, for 14 days. 

On hay 1,212 pounds 

Changed to silage and hay i)297 " 

An increase of 85 pounds or aliout 7 per cent. 

On silage and hay 1,200 pounds 

Changed to hay 1,098 

A decrease of 102 pounds is shown, or about 8 per cent. 

It will be noted from the above that when the cows were changed 
from hay to silage and hay there was a decided change or increase, 
amounting to 7 per cent, and when the cows were again shifted suage 

" ' ' ° increases 

to hay from silage and hay there was a decided loss in flow of 8 ^9^ °' 
per cent. In summing up the above results, Jordan reaches this con- 
clusion: "In the experiment the addition of silage to the ration re- 
sulted in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, which was 
not caused by an increase in the digestibility of food material eaten 
but which must have been due either to the superior value of the 
nutrients of the silage over those of the hay, or to the general physio- 
logical effect of feeding a greater variety of foods. In other words 
8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds 
of hay (mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible material being 
the same in the two cases. 

"Assuming the digestible matter of hay and silage to be of equal 
value, pound for pound, when hay is worth $10 per ton silage of the comparative 
kind used in the experiment would be worth $2.25 per ton. But this lf^\on 
silage contained more water than the average. Had it been of average ""**" ^^^ 
quality, then the ton value reckoned on the above basis would be 
$2.62. But in this case we should give the silage the credit of the 
increased milk production, which seems to have been at the rate of 
85 pounds of milk to each ton of silage." 



404 



CORN. 



Value of Silage versus Fodder Corn. Vorhees and Lane of the 
New Tersey Station,* conducted an experiment to find the compara- 
tive values of silage versus fodder corn. 

For the use of the experiment a 15-acre field planted to corn, with 
rows 3 feet 6 inches and stalks 8 inches apart in the row, was taken. 
The crop was cared for during the first week of September, when the 
ears were nicely glazed over. Twelve acres of the field were put in 
Silage the silo and three acres were harvested as fodder corn and shocked in 
the usual manner. Two lots of cows consisting of 4 in each were 
used in the experiment, one being fed corn fodder and the other silage, 
the feeds being changed at the end of the first period so as to have a 
check upon the experiment. The rations fed were so mixed that the 
silage or fodder corn furnished at least one-half the total dry matter 
and two-thirds the digestible carbohydrates. The cattle seemed to 
relish the silage better than the corn fodder, as a portion of the corn 
fodder was left uneaten. There seemed to be a gain with both lots 
of cows. 

The following data gives the production of milk and fat : 





Number 

of 

Days 


Total 

Yield 

of Milk 


Average 

Yield 

Per Daj 

Per Co\f 


Average 
Percent 
of Fat 


Total 
Yield 
of Fat 


Average 
Fat Per 
Day Per 
Cow 


Silage 


24 
24 


Pounds 

2,276.2 

2,017.9 

258.3 

12.8 


Pounds 

23.7 

21.0 

2.7 


3.78 
3.86 
0.08 


Pounds 

86.1b 

78.02 

8.13 

10.4 


Pounds 
.897 


Dry fodder ration 
Gain for silage. . . 
Per cent of in- 
crease 


.813 
.084 



By noting the above table we see that the silage ration produced 
12.6 per cent more milk and about 10.3 per cent more of the fat than 
the fodder corn. 

Large yields and economy in production and storage are among 
the highest values of silage. Beets also supply succulence. Careful 
tests at the stations of Ohio, Maine, Pennsylvania and Ontario have 
been made with rutabagas, mangels, turnips, and sugar beets. They 
yi'-ids^'and were found to furnish but 35 to 60 per cent as much dry matter per 
production acre as Silage. 1 he Pennsylvania Station found that $56.07 had to 
be expended to grow an acre of roots, while $21.12 would pay for the 
same area in corn and put it in the silo. The United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture estimates the cost of the care of an acre of corn 
at $11.07, counting all details. 

*Rullotin 122, New Jersey. 



Large 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 405 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In all our chapters in which we have 
discussed the feeding value of corn, we have drawn freely from Henry, 
Armsby, Jordan, and Smith. We have tried not to take up stock 
feeding except as it pertains directly to corn and its by-products. 

The farmers of Iowa have promptly responded whenever called 
upon for original information. 

The reports of the State Board of Agriculture of Kansas has been a 
very fertile source of practical data. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Corn as a Silage Crop, 

Maine Bulletin No. ii. 

Composition and Digestibility of Corn Silage, 
Illinois Bulletin No. 43. 

\Vhen to Cut Corn for Ensilage, 

New Hampshire Bulletin No. 3. 

Corn Ensilage for Steers, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 136. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

JUDGING CORN 



Judge 

should be 

practical 



Score caid 

flist uf>ed 

in 1880 



Orange Judd 

wrote a 

score cjrd 

in 1891 



WHY JUDGE CORN? The highest and only purpose of the 
judge is to give first ranking to that sample which in his estimation 
will, if planted the next spring, produce more corn of better quality 
than any other sample on exhibition. Furthermore, it should show- 
breeding, that its good qualities may be more surely perpetuated. A 
true and thorough understanding of the ear of corn can only be ascer- 
tained by practice in judging. The judge cannot do his duty until he 
knows what to look for. 

The criticism at times has been very legitimately made, that in corn 
shows the winning samples had been sometimes chosen too much 
because of attractive appearance and fancy points, the essential points 
being too often lost sight of. That is, over-valuation was laid on 
filling of tips and butts, while size of ear, depth of kernel and ger- 
minating power were ignored. The Agricultural Colleges have taken 
up the task of training men to be proficient in placing awards. Often 
these men have become somewhat stilted and impractical, but their 
influence has aroused an enthusiasm in corn growing all through the 
corn belt. 

For years, intelligent and progressive farmers selected their seed 
corn according to ideas of their own. Corn breeders who establishea 
the standard varieties of the present time, laid stress on certain points. 
They knew a good ear of corn, but because of few occasions (corn 
shows, etc.) for the expression of this knowledge it was not widely 
disseminated. 

INTRODUCTION OF THE CORN SCORE CARD. As corn 
growing and breeding became of more recognized importance and the 
essential characteristics more thoroughly understood by interested 
persons, the formulation of a definite scale of points became neces- 
sary. *"In 1886, at the great corn exhibit at the Exposition at Chi- 
cago, the five expert judges worked some days in preparing a scale 
of points to guide them in their decisions." A score card which has 
been used for years was arranged for the Illinois Fair at Peoria in 
189T by Orange Judd (now deceased), the founder of the Orange 
Judd Farmer and other agricultural papers. Later the Illinois Corn 
Growers' Association modified the original form by aid of the agron- 
omists at the University of Illinois. This institution has been in the 

*Indian Corn Culture, Plumb, Pago 56. 



CORN JUDGING CLASS. 



407 




X 

<: 
z 

o 
o 

a 
z 

5 

Q 

H 
Q 
M 

H 

CQ 

OS 

o 
o 

H 
PS 
O 
X 
m 



408 CORN. 

vanguard in adopting changes for the better in the old score card. The 
corn growers of Missouri have a slightly different scale of points, as 
do those of Nebraska also. Some very radical changes have been 
made in the last two years by the Iowa State College, because of the 
failure of the old score card to meet the need of simplicity and definitc- 
ness in short course and institute work. 

Definition of the Score Card. After having been charged in many 
details, and when only essential things have come to be considered, it 
may be said that the corn score card is an outlined statement and 
explanation of the points to be observed in the elimination of unde- 
sirable ears or samples and of recognizing and selecting those of 
desirable characters. 

The Purposes of the Score Card are: 

(i) To present to the mind of the student, judge and grower the 
essential points to be considered in examining an ear or sample of 
corn. 

(2) To impress the relative value of these points, placing first 
those of the greatest importance. 

(3) To explain and illustrate as much as possible just what these 
points mean. 

(4) To go even further and point out the reason why these points 
mean so much. 



SCORE CARD USED BY THE FARM CROPS DEPARTMENT 
OF THE IOWA STATE COLLEGE. 

Students' Score Card. 

Name of Scorer No Date 

Sample No Table No Variety 



I. General Appearance, (Productiveness) 20 

1. Size and shape of ear, 12 

2. Constitution, 4 

3. Filling of butts, 3 

4. Filling of tips, I 



FULL VS. POINTED TIPS. 



409 




(By courtesy of the Iowa State Cjllege.) 

Fig. 142. 

Space at Cob and Shrunken Tips. 

The ear on the left shows excessive spacing at the cob. The kernels from 
it are very pointed and weak at the tip. The ear on the right is full at 
the cob. its kernels are plump at the tip. 



410 



CORN. 



II. 



Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics, 20 

1. Shape of ear, 

2. Shape of kernel, 

3. Purity of color of cob, 

4. Uniformity in size and shape of kernels, 

5. Purity of color of grain, 

6. Straightness of rows, 

7. Arrangement of rows, 

8. Form and filling of tips 

9. Form and filling of butts. 



III. 



IV. 



V. 



Maturity and Market Condition, 

1. Sappiness. 

2. Chaflfiness, 

3. Starchiness, 

4. Adherence of tip cap to cob, 

5. Adherence of chafif to tip cap, 

6. Plumpness of tips of kernels, 

7. Depth of kernels, 

8. Size of ear, 

9. Size of cob. 

Vitality. — Germinating Power, 

1. Color of embryo, 

2. Condition of embryo, 

3. Adherence of tip cap to cob, 

4. Blistering of kernel, 

5. Size of germ, 

6. Plumpness of tips of kernels, 

7. Adherence of chafif to tip cap, 

8. Condition of cob, 

9. Starchiness, 

10. Chafifiness, 

11. Sappiness, 

Shelling Percentage, 

1. Depth of kernel, 

2. Size and density of cob, 

3. Filling of butts and tips, 

4. Space at cob, 

5. Furrows between rows. 



25 



25 



10 



Total, 



100 



GENERAL APPEARANCE— TRUENESS TO TYPE. 411 

NOTES. 

1. An eai- need not be deficient in all points mentioned under the respective headings to 

score zero in that particular heading. 

2. A score of zero in any one of the first four main headings disqualifies the ear. 

3. An ear or sample scoring below seventy-five (75) does not deserve a place. 

EXPLANATION OF POINTS IN CORN JUDGING 

I. GENERAL APPEARANCE. (PRODUCTIVENESS.) 

1. Size and Shape of Ear. With the proportion of corn to with a 
cob being the same, the larger the ear, the larger the yield, middle is 
providing the same number of ears are grown on an acre. ^ "'^ser 
The ability to mature limits the size. Well shaped ears 

show strength, vigor, breediness. 

2. Constitution. As shown by an ear of desirable size, well 
proportioned, strong, full in the middle. This does not 

mean vitality. 

3. Form and Filling of Butts. Properly filled butts indicate 
perfect pollination, strong shanks and power to withstand 
the winds. A well filled but is more important than a well 
filled tip. 

4. Form and Filling of Tips. Filling of tips, if the depth of 
grain i.>^ maintained, produces higher yields. 

II. TRUENESS TO TYPE OR BREED CHARACTERISTICS. 

1. Shape of Ear. This should conform to the variety type. 
It should be full in the central portion and hold its size 
well out to the tip. In general, circumference should be 
about three-fourths of the length. 

2. Shape of Kernel. The shape of the kernel should conform 
to the variety type. The tip should be full, since such a 
condition indicates strength, high proportion of corn to a wedge- 
cob, and high feeding value. The edges should touch well ^^lali 
up to the crown, which necessitates a more or less wedge- desirable 
shaped kernel. A rounding crown gives a smooth appear- 
ance and shows lack of breeding in dent corn. 

3. Purity of Color of Cob. Variation of color, a white cob 
in yellow corn or a red cob in white corn, indicates im- 
purity and should disqualify the ear, unless such be a 
variety type. 

4. Uniformity in Size and Shape of Kernels, The size and Much care 
shape of all kernels of each ear and of all kernels on all lH'^H^l^ 
the ears in a sample should conform to the variety type ^"^^^^^^jf^^^^s 
and be uniform throughout the sample. This will insure ^n^fomj 
more even stand in planting. 



412 



5- 



CORN. 

Purity of Color of Grain. In color, the kernels should be 

free from mixture and also true to the variety which they 

represent. 

Straightness of Rows. The rows of kernels should run 

straight from l)utt to tip; any twisting of the rows around 

the car is objectionable. 

Arrangement of Rows. This depends upon the variety. 

For example, Reid's Yellow Dent is distinctly paired, 

while Golden Eagle is arranged in single rows. 

Form and Filling of Tips. A tip well filled with uniform 
kernels indicates proper development of the ear and a 
relatively high proportion of corn to cob. It should con- 
form to the variety. The kernels should keep their shape 
and size well out toward the tip of the ear. This is strong 
evidence of good breeding. 

Form and Filling of Butts. A butt well filled with uni 
form, kernels indicates more complete development of the 
ear. Variety type should be considered. 



«§6f 



Fig. 144. 
TYPES OF KERNELS. 



MATURITY AND MARKET CONDITION. 



413 



made for 

s 01 

immaturity 



III. MATURITY AND MARKET CONDITION. 

1. Sappiness. Containing a high percentage of moisture, ciose ob- 
Tlie car is heavy and can usually be twisted out of shape. shouidT 
Ihe kernels generally presenting a glossy, waxy appear- "|n 
ance. 

2. Chaffiness. When the hand is passed roughly over the 
ear, a rattling sound indicates chaffiness. The kernels 
usually have an extremely pinched dent and show imma- 
turity. 

3. Starchiness. Generally a large amount of white starch 
indicates immaturity. This may be present on the back 
or on the front of the kernel, or on both. 

4. Adherence of Tip Cap to Cob. The adherence of the tip 
cap to cob in shelling, leaving the black tip of the germ 
exposed, indicates immaturity. 

5. Adherence of Chaff to Tip Cap. If the chafif adheres to 
the tij) cap in shelling, it indicates more or less immatur- 
ity. The shrinking kernel has drawn the chafif with it in 
the process of drying. 

6. Plumpness of Tips of Kernels. Shrunken tips indicate 
immaturity; that is, they were full of moisture when 
stored. They also indicate lack of vigor, low proportion 
of corn to cob and low feeding value. 

7. Depth of Kernel. As a general rule, deep kernels require 
more time in which to mature than do shallow kernels. 
The depths will vary with the variety type, climatic and 
soil conditions. Deep kernels are liable to show starchi- 
ness. 

8. Size of Ear. The size will vary with the soil and climatic 
conditions. The usual size of an ear in the northern sec ^^^^^^ 
tions of the State of Iowa is from 8 to 9>4 inches ; in the [f^f^^ 
to 10 inches. The circumference should generally be 
central sections, 8^ to 9^; in the southern sections, 9 
about three-fourths of the length. Ears a trifle long, hav- 
ing a circumference of such size that the ear matured, 
should not be cut seriously for this excessive length. 
Laro-e cars showing signs of immaturity should be cut 

very heavily. 



414 



CORN. 



Minor 

signs of 

weakness 

should be 

observed 

closely 



9. Size of Cob. Ears with large, coarse, pithy cobs dry out 
slower, are later maturing, and shell less corn. The cob 
may be so small as to indicate weakness. 

IV. VITALITY (GERMINATING POWER). 

1. Color of Embryo. A yellow or brownish colored embryo 
indicates that it has been frozen. Paleness in color usually 
means loss of vitality, due to long storage. Sometimes 
just one of the sprouts will be affected. 

2. Condition of Embryo. A large, swollen embryo indicates 
that it is full of moisture and liable to freezing. When 
shrunken, it ma}^ be weak because of prolonged storage. 

3. Adherence of Tip Cap to Cob. Tip caps adhering to the 
cob, leaving the black tips of the germs, exposed, indicate 
weakness. 

4. Blistering of Kernel. A kernel blistered on the back indi- 
cates that it was immature and from rapid drying the con- 
traction of the cells left an air space under the hull. When 
the face of a germ is puffed up or wrinkled, it shows that 
the material composing the germ has shrunken and a 
close inspection of the embryo should be made. 

5. Size of Germ. The germ should be large and open on 
the surface, deep, showing strength and plenty of nutri- 
ment for immediate use of the germinating plantlet. 

6. Plumpness of Tips of Kernels. Plump tips indicate ma- 
turity and give room for large germs. 

7. Adherence of Chaff to Tip Cap. Chaff' adhering to tip 
caps of kernels indicates lack of vigor. 

8. Condition of Cob. A .cob is often dark colored or may 
show a bluish, mouldy appearance around the butt. In 
such a case, it has not been properly stored or else was 
immature when gathered. 

9. Starchiness. Starchiness indicates a smaller food sup- 
ply for the growing plant. 

10. Chaffiness. Looseness on the cob and thin, light kerneis 
are indicative of weak germinating power. 

11. Sappiness. Corn containing a high percentage of mois- 
ture is liable to freezing. 



USE OF SCORE CARD. 



415 



V. SHELLING PERCENTAGE. 

1. Size and Density of Cob. A large cob means low shelling 
percentage. A cob of woody texture is always heavy. 

2. Depth of Kernel. The deeper the kernel, the greater the 
proportion of corn to cob. 

3. Filling of Butts and Tips. Other things being equal, ears 
with well filled butts and carrying their size well out on 
the tip, will shell the highest percentage of corn to cob. 
The depth of the kernel should also be maintained over 
the tip. 

4. Space at Cob. Space at the cob is a very definite indica- 
tion of a low proportion of corn to cob. Ears apparently 
sound on the surface may have faults which should be 
carcfull}' looked for. 

5. Furrows Between Rows. A wide open furrow between 
the rows indicates a low shelling percentage and lack of 
breeding. Closeness at the crown or lack of furrow usu- 
ally indicates space at the cob. There should be sufficient 
furrow to permit the corn to dry out readily. 

THE USE OF THE SCORE CARD. In judging single ears 
in class work, or at short courses, the sample usually consists of 
ten ears. After filling out the proper blank at the head of the 
score card and arranging the ten ears in order with two kernels 
placed germ side up at the tip of each ear, the student is 
ready to score the sample. It will be found most convenient 
and practical to score each ear under a respective point 
before going to the next point; that is, mark each ear under the point 
"shape and size" of ear, before the point of "constitution" is consid- 
ered. By so doing, a comparison is kept constantly in mind. The 
scorer should look over the sample and choose the ear which he thinks 
is nearest to perfection and set down an estimate for it, then rate the 
remainder in comparison. If a similar method is followed for each 
individual point on the score card, the work of scoring will be much 
more correct as well as more rapid. In scoring, the cut should not be 
put down, but the amount allowed entered in the first column under 
the number of the ear. In place of using fractions, decimals should 
be placed in the second column. A cut of .25 per cent is the least. In 
summing up the results, the rating of the ears by the score card should 
correspond with the way one would place them without scoring. That 
is, your judgment should correspond with the score card. In scoring 
a sample of corn the amount that an ear is cut in a given point is nc' 



Bepth of 
kernel is 
the largest 
factor in 
shelling 
percentage 



AU 

scoring 
should be 
proportionate 



416 



CORN. 



Four 

questions 

which the 

farmer 

should ask 

himself 



SO important as it is that the cut be in proper proportion in its rela- 
tion to that same point in the other ears in the sample. 

SCORE CARD OF EXTENSION DEPARTMENT. 
The score card used b}' the Extension Department of the Iowa 
State College takes up the points considered in judging under four 
headings. Being plainly stated and logical, they are easily grasped by 
the average short course student who studies corn but two weeks dur- 
ing the year. 

I. Will it Yield? 25 Points. 

That is, will it ^-icid well; has it constitution; can we depend 
on it even when conditions are unfavorable? 

II. Will it Ripen? 25 Points. 

That is, will it mature; will it ripen every year; is it safe for 
the locality? 

III. Does it Show Improvement? 25 Points. 

That is, has it breeding; has it a distinct type; will it repro- 
duce itself; has it several years of careful selection and improve- 
ment back of it? 

IV. Will it Grow? 25 Points. 

That is, has it vitality; will it germinate; will it all grow and 
grow uniformly, giving strong, vigorous plants? 

SCORE CARD OF I. C. G. A. 

The Iowa Corn Growers' Association adopted in 1908, the follow- 
ing score card : 

I. General Appearance, 25 

1. Size and shape of ear, 

2. Filling of butts and tips, 

3. Straightness of rows, 

4. Uniformity of kernels, 
II. Productiveness, 60 

1. Maturity, 

2. Vitality, 

3. Shelling Percentage, 

III. Breed Type, 

1. Size and shape of ear, 

2. Size, shape, and dent of kernel, 

3. Color of grain, 

4. Color of cob, 

5. Arrangement of rows, 



15 



10 

5 
5 
5 

25 
25 
10 

5 

5 
2 

2 

I 






PRACTICAL HINTS IN JUDGING CORN. 



417 



The explanation of points is practically the same as that previous- 
ly described. Its purpose primaril}^ is to condense as much as possible 
the essential points to be considered by a judge in placing awards in 
the State Contest at Ames. The judge is to score each sample and 
attach the score thereto for the benefit of the exhibitor. 

PRACTICAL HINTS IN JUDGING CORN. Exhibitors are rap- 
idly acquiring an intelligent understanding of how to show corn. A 
judge will arrive at a town in which an institute and corn contest are 
to take place. It may be that an old store, a hall, or open tent has 
been reserved for the purpose. A number of entries have been made. 
The corn is in baskets, boxes, sacks, or even hanging about the walls 
by the husks. The first thing for the judge to do is to get some 
wooden horses made or secure some dry goods boxes about three feet 
long. Lay these with end up. Have 14 or 16-foot planks brought up 
from the lumber yard ; place three of these side by side on a row of 
boxes. Twelve-inch boards are too light and sag in the middle, caus- 
ing trouble with the kernels. Arrange the samples of corn, ten ears 
in a place, at intervals along the outside planks. Separate the samples 
about six inches, by the use of ten-penny nails driven two at each end 
of a sample. If a farmer has brought 13 or 14 ears, let him pick out 
what he considers the best ten to enter. When every improvised table 
has been set in order and all the samples arranged with butts even with 
the outer edge of the outside plank, the corn is ready to be judged. Be- 
fore going any further, have a definite understanding with the of!icer 
in charge, regarding the classification, rules of entry, number of prizes 
for each class, and other details, in order that there may be no errors 
made. 

Beginning at one end, take two kernels out of each ear, near its 
middle, place the kernels, germ side up with tips of kernels pointing 
toward the ear, at its tip. An experienced judge can now pass upon 
each sample with his eye as he slowly walks by and immediately elim- 
inate some samples from the competition. That is, there may be sam- 
ples which show lack of any definite breeding; each ear is a type in 
itself. Other samples may have a very shallow, fhnty kernel with 
large cob and poor butts and tips. Another sample may be a mixture 
of varieties with a number of kernels showing immaturity on the sur- 
face. 

If the show happens to come early in the gathering season, very 
careful examination must be made for maturity. This is especially 
true of corn in the northern districts. By taking each ear in the hands 
and twisting slightly, the movement and sound of the kernels will indi- 
cate the degree of ripeness. Many samples which are large and showy- 



Arrange 
all samples 
before 
beginning 
to judge 



Taking 
out the 
kernels 



Observe 
maturity 
closely 






418 



CORN. 



Frosen 

germs 

disqualify 

an ear 



Balance 

points 

closely 

between 

the best 

samples 



Be sure 

you are 

right 

before 

tying 

the ribbons 



looking, indicate to the touch and eye of the experienced judge that 
they may not mature. In other words, he cannot place such an entry 
at the top because it is liable to injury by freezing and may not pro- 
duce if planted the next year. Such samples should also either be 
eliminated at once or considered only on condition. 

Corn exhibited during the winter is liable to injury by freezing, or 
may have been frozen previously. A sappy condition of the ears will 
arouse suspicion. Careful examination with a knife of several kernels 
from each car will indicate those ears which have been frozen and 
hence are likely to germinate weakly. Simply lay open the surface 
of the germ with the point of a knife blade. Allow the embryo to lie 
in its place. If it is brownish or yellowish and swollen, it has very 
likely been frozen. The entire mass of the germ is often like salve, 
having also a yellowish color. A frozen ear could not possibly score 
more than zero for seed purposes. A sample with several frozen 
ears cannot be placed high in the awards if unfrozen corn is on com- 
petitive exhibition. If judging is to be done with old corn which has 
been stored a year or more, it will be difficult to detect an injured 
embryo. Usually, if the embryo be pale in color and much diminished 
in size, the chances of strong germination are slight. Starchiness and 
chaffiness are generally indexes of immaturity in old samples. 

After all means of ready elimination have been carried out, a care- 
ful study of the samples at hand should be made. The size and shape 
of the ears, the size and shape of the kernels, evidence of definite selec- 
tion for breed type — all should be considered. Choose a small 
number of the samples of the highest standard. Study still more, 
carefully balancing the points in favor of one over another. One 
sample may show more breed type, but be a little bit immature, while 
another of large ears may lack uniformity and show little evidence of 
definite selection. It is best to choose the former sample. If any one 
is an outstanding winner, then balance one against another as the 
ranking of the remainder is continued. Often in close competition, the 
ears of two samples may have to be pitted against each other; that 
is, place all the ears of each sample in order of their merit from I 
to ID. Then compare ear No. i of sample A with ear No. i of sample 
B, and so on until the majority of points lies with one sample or the 
other. 

When all the samples are placed, a good plan is to walk around the 
tables once more to satisfy one's self that no samples of worth have 
been overlooked. Always maintain a respect for the opinions of those 
who may be on-lookers or owners. They are present to learn, if not lo 



SELECTING A SAMPLE OF CORN FOR SHOW. 



4iy 



criticise. Answer questions civilly, taking care to offend no one, yet 
placing the awards, by your own judgment. Be sure you have a good 
reason for placing every sample before you call the secretary or entry 
clerk to record the winnings. If you have no such reasons, then you 
have placed the samples not by good judgment, but by guess. When 
the ribbons are brought, tie them yourself, reading the entry number 
for the clerk as you do so. In a large show this is often impossible, 
but many times trouble arises from someone tying ribbons on the 
wrong samples. 




Fig. 321. 
CORN TRAY. ^ 

Very convenient for handling samples of 10 ears either in the class room or for exhibi- 
tion purpn.ses. Dimensions — 28 inches long by 12 inches wide by 1% inches deep. Divis- 
ions 2 inches apart. Sides and bottom of Vi inch material. Groove in front % of au 
inch wide. 

SELECTING A SAMPLE OF CORN FOR SHOW. There are 
a great many different points to be taken into consideration in selecting 
a sample of corn for show purposes. An ear of general utility should often ears 
always be uppermost in mind. We often find at corn shows a sample in "ngth 
of corn in which each ear, while it may be very ferviceable, differs so 
much from the other ears in the sample that it is impossible for the 
sample to rank high in the competition. When choosing a sample oi 
corn, as in choosing animals for breeding purposes, it is necessary that 
there be a definite type in mind and that each ear of the sample con- 
form as nearly as possible to that type. The type will vary according 
to the varietv of corn which is being grown and this type should be 
firmlv fixed in the mind of the one who intends to show. (See Fig 

I45-) 



420 



CORN. 




Courtesy of the Iowa State College.) Fig. 145. 

SAMPLE LACKING UNIFORMITY IN LENGTH OF EARS. 

The ears should be as far as possible of the same shape ; of uniform 
The kernels length and circumference. The kernels of each ear should conform to 

should have 

nniform One another throughout, being of uniform size and color. Too often 
depth the regularity of the kernel is lost sight of and an ear will be displayed 
in which the kernels have a tendency to run in various directions, as 
well as being of numerous sizes. No matter how well matured an ear 
may be, having a very desirable shape, of good size, and shelling a 
high percentage of corn to cob, if the kernels are very irregular and of 
different sizes, it is impossible for that ear to rank high as a seed ear. 
This applies to our dent varieties, all of which we expect to be regular 
and uniform in kernel. (See Fig. 145.) 

The butts and tips should be well fitted with kernels of a regular, 
uniform size. The tendency is for the kernels to be large and of irreg- 
ular size at the butt, while often small and shallow at the tip. An 
ear should not be thrown out because the tip is not completely cov- 
ered. A good butt is more essential than a good tip ; it is. however, 
very essential that there be a large auKmnt of good corn between the 
butt and tip. 

There is another class of samples that is very frequently found at 
corn shows in which the ears are of quite uniform size and shape, 
yet the kernels are greatly different. (See Fig. 146.) 



EARS SHOULD BE UNIFORM. 



421 




19 09 ni 09 '>') nf^ 



nn 



nn n*^ 



oe 



( I'.y (Muriisy m lnwa Static College.) 

Fig. 146. 

SAMPLE SHOWLXG FAIR UNIFORMITY IN LENGTH OF EARS BUT THE 
KERNELS ARE OF DIFFERENT TYPES. 

Very frequently at corn shows the following question will be 
asked by exhibitors: "Has a person a right to take kernels out of 
an ear to examine them before showing?" He most certainly has! If 
is impossible for him to be sure regarding the depth of the kernel with- 
out making an examination. The best way is to take a couple of ker- 
nels out. examine them for shape and depth and place them back in 
the car, turning one of them about. In this way, they will very gen- 
erally retain their places. There is a very common opinion prevalent 
that if a coujjle of kernels are taken out of the ears, the judge is very 
liable to consider that these kernels had been "white caps," and there- 
fore the ear will be discriminated against. An exhibitor can no more 
exhibit a ten-ear sample of corn intelligently without taking a couplfe 
of kernels out of each ear to examine them to see that the sample con- 
forms in uniformity of kernels as well as uniformity of ear, than the 
judge can properly judge a sample of corn without also examining 
the kernels in each ear exhibited. The depth of kernel, plumpness df 

tip, and size are important factors. 

t 
An immature ear is not entitled to a place. Maturity canijot b!e 

profitably sacrificed to size of ear, though a nubbin is never desirable 

from the show standpoint. The practical ear (and that is the ear for 

which we should strive), is the largest possible ear that will mature 



Kernels 
should be 
taken oat 
by an 
exhibitor 
in selecting 
the sample 



Immature 
corn can 
not be 
placed 



422 



CORN. 




»9 



QQ f^o §9 OP nn re 



CiQ 



np ■ fP 



(ByCourtosy i.f the Iowa Stat ■- College.) Fig. 147. 

EARS OF SAME LENGTH AND KERNELS SIMILAR IN TYPE. 

in each respective locality, being of the desired type, and shelling a 
high percentage of corn to cob. A small, matured ear is much more 




Fig. 148. 

SECTION OF CORN EXHIBIT AT THE IOWA CORN GROWERS' ASSO- 
CIATION, JANUARY, 1907. 



COLLATERAL READING. 



423 



desirable than a larger immature one. Examine each ear thoroughly. 
Samples of corn with germs showing evidence of freezing are found 
frequently at corn shows. Such samples are unfit for show and should 
receive no place in competition with corn for seed. 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Score Card for Dent Corn, 

Ohio Circular No. 6i. 
Hints on Preparing and Holding Corn Shows, 

Indiana Circular No. i. 
Send for score cards of the Corn Growers' Association of each 
state. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THE VARIETIES OF DENT CORN 
NOW PRINCIPALLY GROWN IN THE CORN BELT 

LEAMING. 

HISTORY. This is the oldest known variety of corn, having been 

Originated Originated by Mr. J. S. Learning, near Wihiiington, Ohio, in 1826. At 

s. Learning, this time he began selecting seed from the ordinary yellow corn grown 

°"° owo in Hamilton County on the Little ]\Iiami bottoms. As soon as the 

ripening of the husks indicated that the corn was beginning to mature, 

he would go through the field, selecting an ear slightly tapering from 

butt to tip, well filled at butt and tip, with straight rows, and ripening 

in from 90 to no days. For 56 years he followed this careful system 

of selection. His son and other breeders have continued his work. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. The Learning is not a 
rank growing variety, being more of a producer of grain than stem. 
It has very little tendency to sucker and does not remain green late 
in the fall. 




Fig. 149. 
LEAMING. 



Ear. The tapering ear of the Leaming is a most marked character- 
istic. When allowed to do so without care in selection, the ears will 
so become short with a flaring butt and a rapid, pointed taper from 
shank to tip. Often a row or several rows will be lost near the tip. 
The best breeders today are trying to hold the type full in the middle 
with a gentle taper at the tip. Being a heavy ear, the shank will 



LEAMING. 



425 



always be large and when removed leave a somewhat open butt. The 
length of ear varies from 9 to iqi^ inches, even the northern-grown 
Learning keeping its length. The cob is red, although a pale color 
sometimes appears. Breeders today are trying to eliminate this. 



t 9 I 

"^iiVti V^^OVi T)<LiA . L(iu,\\\vv\a GttViaa Lov^U. 



Fi?. 150. 
KERNELS OF DIFFERENT VARIETIES. 

Kernel. A Leaming kernel is of medium depth, quite thick, and 
the edges touch each other at the tip, but part near the crown. The 
kernel is less of a parallelogram than the Boone County White, and 
consequently has less shoulder at the tip. The germ is very broad and 
sometimes covers the face of the kernel almost as much as the Reid. 
Being horny almost to the crown the kernels give the surface a rich, 
almost orange yellow appearance. The original type was a dimple 
dent, but breeders today have evolved a heavy crease. Being of shal- 
low kernel and often having a large cob, the shelling percentage is 
rather low, not exceeding 88 per cent as a rule. 

Adaptability. Being the first corn to be systematically improved 
in the United States, the Leaming has been carried to all parts of the 
corn belt. The shape of the ear and blockiness of the kernels mark 
many mongrel types to-day. In fact, the one fault of this corn is its 
irregularity of rows and lack of uniformity in the shape of the kernels. 
From the beginning, the breeders have had to watch this character, 
and among the best of them it appears to-day. Not being particular 
as to soil and having originally been selected for early maturity, it is 
found among the most northern of dent varieties. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. In 1885, E. E. Chester, of 
Champaign, Illinois, secured seed from J. S. Leaming. In continuing 
the type, 'Sir. Chester has selected ears which ripen in from 100 to 120 



Tapering 
ear 



Blocky 

thick 

kernel 



Adapts 

itself 

readily 



426 



CORN. 



days. J. H. Coolidge. of Galesburg, although securing seed from Mr. 
Chester, has developed even a deeper kernel. 

Leigh F. Maxcy. of Curran, Illinois, says that he purchased his 
first bushel of Learning seed on March lo, 1897, of Mr. E. E. Chester, 
Champaign. Illinois, who secured his seed direct from the originator, 
Mr. J. S. Lcaming, of Wilmington, Ohio, in 1885, and from this stock 
of seed perhaps all strains of Leaming corn now grown by difTerenl 
breeders in Illinois have been originated. He has grown this variety 
continually since his first purchase. 

In Iowa, the Leaming strain is shown in almost all the unimproved 
corn throughout the state. The large shank and tapering ears are 
commonly present. This corn, however, has been a fair yielder and 
always hardy. Fred Woolley, of Garden Grove, Decatur County, is 
the only breeder who has tried to improve the Leaming in Iowa. He 
began 18 years ago with the common strain as a foundation. How- 
ever, in 1904, he secured the improved type from E. E. Chester, of 
Champaign, Illinois, and has kept this pure by the "ear to the row" 
method. The original type formerly grown he found earlier' than 
Reid's Yellow Dent, but this larger, deeper grained, more improved 
kind is a little later. 

REID'S YELLOW DENT 

EARLY HISTORY. In 1846 Mr. Reid moved from Brown Coun- 
ty, Ohio, to Tazewell County, Illinois, taking with him a reddish col- 
by Eeid orcd variety of corn known as the "Gordon Hopkins" corn, which was 
in Tazeweu wide-ly grown in the vicinity where Mr. Reid had lived. The corn 

CouQty . ,.,,. ,, 

Illinois was planted late in the spring of that year and though yielding well 
the corn was immature. The best of this was selected for seed the 
next year, but because of the immaturity of the seed a poor stand was 
obtained. The field was then replanted with seed of the Little Yellow 
corn and thus a mixed red and yellow corn was obtained. Since that 
time, or for nearly sixty years, this corn has been kept pure and care- 
fully selected for a definite type, and because of this long and careful 
selection its characteristics are unusually well fixed. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— The Stalk. The Reid corn is a 
gross feeder. Ik-ing rather highly bred under the best of conditions, 
the stalk is rank with abundant foliage, although not so likely to 
sucker badly as some other varieties. 

Ear The Ear. The Reid's Yellow Dent is characterized by a slowly 

ana "slowly tapering car, with deeply rounded and compressed butt. When first 

aper ng recognized and brought out for exhibition, the tip was very stubby and 



REID'S YELLOW DENT. 



427 




Pi 
< 

< 
o 

in CQ 

i-i 
. < 

IT ^ 

o 

O 



428 



CORN. 




[^'T^.v, 



•x.>T»wa' 



;^.r;^s^ 



:^ 






"3^9 **S»' 



MO 



Fig. 152. 
TWO TYPES OF TIPS IN EARS OF REID'S YELLOW DENT. 



The ear to the left has the abruptly rounded, very full tip. This is the D. L. 
Pascal ear, champion of the world. The ear on the right has the gently 
tapering tip which goes with an earlier maturing type of corn. Champion 
of Iowa in 1908, shown by J. A. Mason. 



REID'S YELLOW DENT. 



429 



was cut off squarely. This peculiar though very showy character was 
found to reproduce a late maturing ear. Hence, at present a gently 
rounding tip is preferred, with, however, depth of kernel over the 
entire cob. A Reid ear hangs on a very small shank and often because 
of too close selection on this point, is even too fine. The ear is me- 
dium in length, measuring 8 to lo^ inches. 

Kernels. The distinct pairing of the rows of kernels, the extreme 
triangular outline of the edges of the kernels which dovetail together 
and the large open-faced germ extending almost to the crown and 
covering the face of the wedge-shaped outline, are all characteristics Rows 
of the Reid corn. Usually the germ has a marked seam down its kernels 
center. The kernels, which are firm and upright on the cob, are of ThaS 
varying shades of yellow, usually being light, though not of a weak, 
starchy appearance. Often a tinge of copper color shows on the sur- 
face, due to the early breeding of the "Gordon Hopkins" corn. 

The dentation of the kernels is very noticeable when grown in the 
central part of Illinois or southern Iowa. On strong ground a pinched 
appearance may occur. As it is acclimated to more northern lati- 
tudes the kernels become shallow and flinty with a dimpled surface. 
This was the original Reid type, but the best breeders today select a 
bridge-crease dent. 



over a 

large 

territory 



Adaptability. Reid's Yellow Dent matures in no to 120 days, Has spread 
being a medium late maturing variety. Many farmers in 
Iowa and Nebraska have had very poor success with it the first year, 
because it keeps on growing on rich soils until caught by frost. It 
has, however, become a very versatile variety, and by changing its 
type adapts itself to new environments. Being highly bred, rigid seed 
selection must be continually practiced or the prolificacy and trueness 
to type of the variety is rapidly lost. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. It has been said that there 
are as many types of Reid's Yellow Dent as there are men who grow 
this variety.^ There are, however, a few breeders who have developed 
such strength of blood lines that each has a group of amateurs follow- 
ing in his footsteps. The Funk Brothers, of Bloomington, Illinois, 
have evolved the Funk's Yellow Dent by selection and mating from 
the original Reid stock. W. E. Johnson, of Athens, has beena pioneer 
in a very substantial way, not only distributing seed in other states, 
but following it up and encouraging the purchasers by putting up 
premiums for them. W. H. Young, also of Athens, has been a con- 
sistent winner in the Reid classes. His corn shows a wonderful true- 



430 



CORN. 



D. L. 

Pascal 

of Iowa 



ness to type. W. H. Dunseth, of Waverly, Illinois, though a grower 
of several other varieties, has developed a heavy yielding, rough-dent 
Reid, which has been an annual sweepstakes winner at the Illinois 
State Fair. 

In Iowa, D. L. Pascal, of DeWitt, who purchased his own grown 
ear at $150 at the auction of the Iowa Corn Growers' Association in 
January, 1907. has through rigid selection established a Pascal type. 
Mr. Pascal is himself a lover of good corn, and studies the growth of 
the trial plots in the field. Eastern Iowa has profited much by his 
influence. 

J. F. Summers, of 
Malvern, being on the 
rich soil of the Nishna- 
botna River, has by 
careful selection and 
care in removing weak 
and barren stalks from 
his breeding blocks, 
brought out a heavy 




Fig. 156(d). 

REID'S YELLOW DENT 



yielding type with a very deep kernel. 

F. S. Bone, of Grand River, has carried the theory of experimental 
breeding into actual operation on the farm. The results of his efforts 
are showing in local and state contests. 

W. A. Hook, of Packwod, though starting in a small way, may be 
said to be keeping the closest records of his breeding work of any 
breeder in the state. 

Among other men who are producing a consistent type of Reid 
corn are John Sundberg, of Whiting; Bennett Brothers, of Ames; M. 
S. Nelson, of Goldfield ; Fred McCulloch, of Hartwick ; J. W. Cover- 
dale, of Elwood; L. C. Hutcheson, of West Branch; Neal Brothers, of 
Mt. Vernon ; George M. Allee, of Newell ; Paul C. Tafif, of Panora; W. 
P. Coon, of Ames; Charles O. Garrett, of Mitchellville, and C. R. 
Bishop, of Altoona. 

IOWA SILVER MINE 

HISTORY. The Iowa Silver Mine originated with J. H. Beagley, 

nginated ^£ gjiji^y^ Illinois, from seed of a white corn which won a prize at the 

Beagify Ford County Farmers' Institute in 1890. After several years of care- 

sibie°y ful breeding, enough seed was secured to plant 20 acres. The result- 

ing entire crop was bought by the Iowa Seed Company, of Des Moines, 

in 1895, for $1,000. They named it the Iowa Silver Mine. 



Illinois 



i 



SILVER MINE. 



431 




Not a 

rank 

grower 



Ear ■with 
full middle 



BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. Silver Mine is not a 

rank growing variety; even on rich 
ground it does not produce such an 
abundance of foliage as other vari- 
eties. The stem itself is short and 
of a finer texture with little coarse- 
ness about the joints. Even under 
adverse conditions the hills seem 
comparatively free from barren 
stalks. 

Ear. The type of ear sought in 
the Silver Aline corn is only me- 
dium in size, with a full middle, be- 
ing cylindrical part of the way from 
butt to tip. and then slowly taper- 
ing oflf at the tip. The length runs 
from 8 to 93^ inches and the circum- 
ference is large in proportion. Tho 
shank is medium small in size, but 
the butt does not have the smoothly 
rounded cup-shape that is found in 
the Reid. The cob is pure white, 
with a very fine texture and weighs 
light when dry. 

Kernel. The rows, which aver- 
age about 18. are paired, though less 
distinctly than in the Reid. There p'^nei 

-' deep, 

is considerable space between the wedge- 

^ shaped, 

crowns because of the depth of the ^^^^ 
kernels. However, the grains are 
firm on the cob and no chaffiness is 
present. The kernel itself is a 
slowly tapering wedge, with a plain 
open-faced germ which graduallly 
widens from crown to tip, untjl 
it almost covers the endosperm on 
either side. The tip of the ker- 
nel lacks prominent shoulders, but 
Fig. l5o. rounds ofif plumply. The kernel 

SILVER MixE. j^^g ^.^j.y jj^^jg thickness compared 



432 



CORN. 



Most 

adaptable 

of all 

varieties 



with its width and often the germ extends almost to the back side. 
Silver Mine is properly of a creamy white color, with a medium 
pinched dent. However, some breeders select a shallow kernel with a 
heavy crease dent. The deep grain and small cob in Silver Mine, to- 
gether give it a high shelling percentage, averaging 88 to 89 per cent. 
This deep kernel is, however, very seldom starchy, being horny almost 
to the crown. Starchy crowns are pale white and lose the strength of 
appearance found in the cream color. 

Adaptability. It is claimed by its distributors that the Sil- 
ver Mine is adapted to a wider range of climate and soil than any 
other corn offered on the market. This claim seems very true because 
it is capable of growing on especially poor soils. As it has a tendency 
toward grain rather than fodder production, the plant food in the soil 
goes directly to feeding the ear. The fact that this corn matures in 
from 100 to 105 days accounts for its forging northward on the richer 
soils Avhere previously only very early shallow grained varieties were 
grown. 

CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. F. A. Warner, manager of the 
Sibley Estate, Sibley, Illinois, has bred the Silver Mine corn for a 
number of years. His type is somewhat larger than that of Iowa and 
is coarser in the cob and later in maturing. 

In Iowa, M. S. Nelson, of Goldfield, has grown this variety in the 
northern section of the state. J. H. Petty, of Elliott, and W. A. Hook, 
of Packwood, have grown a large type quite extensively in the south- 
ern counties. The latter has tried a few ears in the test plots. 



Originated 

with 

James Riley 

of 

Boone Co. 

Indiana 



BOONE COUNTY WHITE 

HISTORY. This variety was originated by Mr. James Riley, of 
Boone County, Indiana, in 1876. In that year he selected what he 
considered a desirable type from a large, coarse corn grown in his 
county, known as the White Mastodon. He planted the selected seed 
in an isolated field and developed it by selection without crossing with 
any other varieties. The barren stalks were removed before thep pro- 
duced pollen. After several years of such careful work he developed 
a new type of corn which he named after his home county. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. Boone County AVhite is 
a vigorous grower and requires a strong soil. The stalk is rank, with 
heavy joints and short internodes. Although not suckering extremely; 
the leaf expanse is large. 




BOONE COUNTY WHITE. 433 

Ear. The ear of this 
variety of white corn is ^yiSdricli 
longer in proportion to ^^^ 
its circumference than 
is the Silver ]Mine. The 
shape is quite cylindri- 
cal, with a slow taper 
Fig. 156(c). ' . , , r , 

BOONE COUNTY WHITE. the entire length of the 

ear. Both butt and tip are cut off squarely. The shank is very 
large and when broken off leaves a flat, rather open butt, around 
which the kernels do not fill in. The cob is rather open and porous 
and usually quite heavy. The length of ear varies between 9 and 10^ 
inches. 

Kernel. The Boone County corn is a pearly, clear white, due to 
the fact that the crown starch is such a very thin layer that the horny 
endosperm below shows on the surface of the ear. The kernels are me- 
dium to shallow in depth, but because there is no excess of dent the yg^y ^.j^^j^ 
percentage of corn to cob is surprising though not high. The rows ^e°*[ 
have some space at the crown due to the fact that the sides touch 
all the way down to the tips. That is, the kernel is almost a perfect 
oblong with little narrowing at the tip. The thickness of the kernel 
is greater than any other of the principal varieties. The germ extends 
almost to the crown, but is not so wide at the tip as in the Reid or 
Silver Mine. In other words, the horny endosperm lies prominently 
on each side of the germ, forming near the attachment at the cob a 
pronounced shoulder. The dent in earlier years was sometimes so 
smooth as to resemble the dimple. It later became the crease, and 
some breeders have deepened the kernel and shortened the ear, until 
a slight pinch is noticed. Although bred pure, unless the care is taken 
in selecting seed each year, there is a tendency for the ears to become 
shallow and flinty over the tip. Often the furrows become too deep 
also. 

Adaptability. Boone County White makes demands on the 
soil which can not be supplied except in alluvial districts. Being a ^^^^^^ 
medium to late maturing corn, requiring a season of 120 to 125 days, ^^^^^^^.j^ 
it will never move northward very far. At present, it is found prin- sections 
cipally in the southern half of Indiana and Illinois, and in a few 
counties near the south line of Iowa. Missouri is a Boone County 
corn state. 



434 



CORN. 



CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. In Illinois, O. C. Black, of 
Champaign, has developed a rougher type with a deeper kernel. A 
number of other breeders in the state have done the same thing. 

In Iowa, Lenus Hagglund, of Essex, on the rich soil of the Nish- 
nabotna, has kept very pure and raised to high standard of product- 
iveness and quality, a type of Boone County which, although of a 
rough dent, shows the original form. Because of the quality of this 
seed a considerable locality near Essex has taken up the variety. F. 
S. Bone, of Grand River, breeds the Riley type strictly. 

LEGAL TENDER 



"^■^ Iowa 

variety 

originated 

by 

Nims Bros. 

Emerson 

MiUs Co. 



HISTORY. In 1876, Nims Brothers, of Emerson, Iowa, crossed 
two distinct types of corn, one a short ear with deep grains and from 
20 to 24 rows of kernels ; the other a long ear with good shaped ker- 
nels and from 12 to 16 rows. The resulting cross was developed into 
a variety that has been carefully selected for 30 years. Their 
first winnings were made at the corn exhibit held in connection with 
the Chicago Fat Stock Show in 1886. The late D. B. Nims, deceased 
November 1906, Avas an inveterate worker and did much to dissemi- 
nate this breed of corn by exhibiting at the Iowa State Fair and at 
the annual contests of the Iowa Corn Growers' Asociation. In all his 
breeding he strove for yield, even sometimes losing sight of uniformi- 
ty of kernels and shapeliness of the ear. J. W. and Henry L. Nims are 
continuing the work of the brother and father. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS.— Stalk. A field of Legal Tender 
can almost be distinguished from that of any other variety even under 
similar conditions. From the time of germination to maturity the 
plant is a very vigorous grower and shows an abundance of foliage 
even on poor ground. In fact, it can be severely criticised for this 
tendency. The nodes are thick and prominent and the internodes 
stocky. Because it does draw heavily upon the soil and because this 
character has not been discriminated against in its early development, 
the Legal Tender throws out a large number of suckers. 

Ear. The ear of Legal Tender when judged by the standards of 
other breeds seems to lack proportion. That it, its extreme length, 
9 1-2 to II inches, is not proportioned by like circumference. The ear 
is almost cylindrical and the tip rounds ofY abruptly. There is a ten- 
dency about the butt to be poorly filled, but the shank is none too 
large for the weight of the ear. The cob does not have quite the 
cherry-red color found in the Reid corn. 



I 



LEGAL TENDER. 



435 




^Courtesy 1". S. Bone) Fig. 154. 

SECTIONAL VIEW OF AN EAR OF LEGAL TENDER. 
Note the deep kernels with large germs. 



Kernel. The original type of Legal Tender was a kernel of me- 
dium depth. But a few breeders have developed a very deep grain 
which soon l^ecame shoe-pegged and lacking in fullness at the tip. 
This type was also very chaffy and became late in maturing and rather 
starchy. However, the kernel is the deepest of the varieties of Iowa J^ther^"°°' 
and is rather narow with straight sides, and quite prominent should- narrow, 
ers at the tip. The germ, which extends in depth almost to the back 
of the thin grain, is very broad and covers the entire face of the kernel, 
reaching near the crown as well. Although very deep and shelling 
90 per cent of corn, the kernels are firm on the cob. 

Adaptability. Having originated on the rich, warm soils of 
southwestern Iowa, the Legal Tender is really a special purpose var- 
iety. When tried farther north the only outcome has been a shorten- 



436 



CORN. 



ing of the kernel and a lessening of the size of ear. In northern Mis- 
souri and eastern Kansas it has proved to be a very heavy yielder. 
When pushed farther westward into Kansas, however, it did not se- 
cure sufficient rainfall. 

• ■*'■ ' 
CONTEMPORARY BREEDERS. ThI irnmediate locality of 

Emerson has developed a number of Legal Tender enthusiasts. Mont- 
gomery and Page Counties have several men who produce a winning 
type. As yet all are amateurs and could not be spoken of as breeders. 

RILEY'S FAVORITE 

HISTORY. This variety of Yellow Dent corn was originated by 
Mr. James Riley, of Boone County, Indiana, in 1885. He will be re- 
Originated membered as the originator of the Boone County White corn. Mr. 
James Rii^y Rilcv desired a larger corn than the Pride of the North, which was 
(juite generally raised in his section, and yet one that w^ould mature. 
Accordingly he crossed the Golden Yellow, a large late corn, with the 
Pride of the North, a small early maturing corn, thus producing a 
hybrid. He planted this corn in isolated places each year, carefully 
cutting out diseased and barren stalks until he fixed a type of fully 
desirable yellow corn which would mature in a little more than 100 
days. With this object in view he selected for a medium sized ear, 
small cob, well filled butts and tips, and stalks of medium height. 

BREED CHARACTERISTICS. Riley's Favorite is not a rank 
grower and usually has a stalk of medium height. The ear is slowly 
tapering, seldom exceeding 9 inches in length. For a crossed variety 
the rows are surprisingly uniform and the butt is quite evenly rounded 
with very little coarseness. The cob is small and for an early corn is 
a high sheller, even up to 89 per cent. The kernels are only fairly 
firm on the cob, with considerable space at the crown. The outline 
is that of a thin wedge, and the dent is markedly pinched. The ear 
presents a very striking orange yellow- color. 

GOLDEN EAGLE 

This variety of corn was originated by Mr. H. B. Perry, of Toulon, 

in Stark County, Illinois, in 1871. He began his selection from a vari- 

r. B Perry cty known as the "Mason County Yellow," which was a small eared 

Stark . . 

County corn with small, bright yellow kernels and red cob. This corn has 

Illinois , 1 • 1 , 

never been crossed with other varieties and selection has been espec- 
ially for a large proportion of corn to cob, which fact is evidenced in 
the deep kernels and well filled ends. 

The ear should be slowly tapering and of medium length ; kernels 



GOLDEN EAGLE. 



437 



deep, bright yellow in color, loose, 
and upright on cob, with straight 
edges and sharp, rough dent; num- 
ber of rows i6 to 20, with medium 
to wide spacing between the rows ; 
butt moderately rounded and com- 
pressed, cob small and red with 
small shank. This variety is of me- 
dium maturity, ripening in from 100 
to 115 days, and is adapted to the 
latitude of central Illinois, where it 
is grown to a considerable extent. 

WHITE SUPERIOR 

The history of the White Superior 
variety, as nearly as can be learned 
from the account of Mr. P. R. Sper- 
ry, of Warren County, Illinois, a 
breeder of this corn, is as follows: 
Mr. Shaffer, a seed specialist, in 
1880 l)rought from Pennsylvania to 
Warren County, Illinois, a variety 
of corn called White Elephant. In 
1895. Mr. Sperry began selecting 
seen from this variety for a different 
type than the White Elephant. He 
selected one bushel of seed of the 
type desired and planted this seed 
by itself, so that it would not be 
mixed with any other variety. In 
changing the type of corn Mr. 
Sperry changed the name to the 
White Superior. It is a medium to 
late maturing variety, ripening in 
105 to 120 days. 

His selection was as follows: 

Kernels one-half inch in length and 

one-fourth inch in width; ears 11 

inches long, 7 1-2 inches circumfer- 

^^' ^^' ence, with little space between rows. 

GOLDEX EAGLE. jj^g White Superior is adapted to 

central and north central sections of the state of Illinois. 




Highest 

shelling 

percentage 

of 

aU 



Originated 

by 

P. R. Sperry 

of 

Warren 

County 

Illinois 



Corn of 
medium 
size 



438 CORN. 

This white corn as it is bred today is of medium size, the length not 
exceeding 9 and the circumference 7 inches. There are usually about 
18 to 20 distinct rows of tapering, dented kernels, with slightly curved 
edges. The shank is medium to large, with a medium white cob. 

SHENANDOAH YELLOW. 

='=History. The Shenandoah Yellow has been a distinct variety 

or rather tvpe. in the vicinity of Shenandoah, Iowa, for twenty years. 

Said ^^ '^ ^^^^ result of improving and selecting good strains of yellow corn 

to be brought there from Illinois bv the early settlers. It represents the 

Originated ^^ 

^y southwestern Iowa idea of a big, rough, yellow corn of good form. 

S. E. Field '■ ° .,,. i-t- <- t- 

Page hjoh feeding quality, and extra heavy yielding ability. S. tL. 

County '^ t>i J ' ,, ri- 

Iowa P'ield and others of Page County. Iowa, were the early growers of this 
corn. It was not offered for sale and distribution until 1901, when 
it was entered in the seed catalog of Henry Field. It has proved a 
great success in loose, warm, fertile soils ; but as it is a heavy feeder, 
it has proved a failure on hard-pan land in light soils. It is especially 
popular in northwestern Missouri; 

Breed Characteristics. The stalk is very coarse, w^ith abundant 
foliage. This corn is a very ran"k gro\ver. The ear is a large 
Large one, measuring about 10 inches. The kernel is very deep and 
orange is broader than most of the high shelling varieties. It has a very 
sharp, pinched dent. The type is not as yet very uniform, but the 
predominating color is a dark orange yellowy and the shape of the ear 
is almost cylindrical. 

FARMERS' RELIANCE. H. H. Connell, of Deep River, Iowa, 
IS the breeder of this corn, which is the result of a cross, his object 
being an extra early corn, yet as large as it could be made. As Pride 
of the North has been improved, he has allowed Farmers' Reliance 
to become somewhat larger and also later. It is now medium early, 
a strong, rapid grower, and a sure cropping variety. The ears are 
medium in size, tapering, with firm, rather smooth grain. 

PRIDE OF THE NORTH.— History. Pride of the North was 

originated and developed by II. J. Goddard of Fort Atkinson, Iowa. 

Very popular ^^^- Goddard began breeding this corn in 1890. 40 bushels of this 

where^seasons g^^j were sold to the Adams Seed Company, of Decorah, Iowa, in 

1875. The next year Mr. Savage, special agent for the Hiram Sibley 

Seed Company of Chicago, came out to Mr. Goddard's farm and con- 

*The real development of this variety has been brought about by the efforts of Frank. 
Keenan of Shenandoah. 



SILVER KING. 



439 




Fig. 156. 
PRIDE OV THE NORTH. 

distribute it over that state. 



tracted his entire crop. The publicity 
given the new variety by this large 
company, together with its record in 
the corn show soon made the Pride of 
the North the most widely grown corn 
in the northern part of Iowa and Illi- 
nois. In 1886 a sample of Mr. God- 
dard's own breeding was awarded first 
premium at the Chicago Exposition. 
Breed Characteristics. Pride of the. 
North is a yellow corn with rather 
shallow kernel, slightly tapering ear, 
and having 12. to 16 rows of kernels, is 
therefore small in circumference. Its 
strongest points are early maturity and 
strength of breeding. 

SILVER KING.— History. Silver 
King Early Dent corn was originated 
and developed by H. J. Goddard, of 
Fort Atkinson, Iowa. Of the truly originally 

, . , , came from 

•-"reat breeders of corn which have car- mdiana 
ried on their work in Iowa, Mr. God- 
dard is the foremost. In 1869 he pur- 
chased half a bushel of seed corn from 
a man living in Eldorado, Fayette 
county, Iowa. The seed originally 
came from Indiana. Mr. Goddard has 
persistently kept the large yet early 
maturing type in mind. Selection in 
the field each year has tended to pro- 
duce uniformity and fixity oT "Dreed 
characteristics. Silver King dent corn 
was successfully shown at the World's 
Fair in New Orleans in 1884 and again 
in Chicago in 1886. Its value as a 
heavy yielder for the northern locali- 
ties has led Professor R. A. Moore, of 
the Wisconsin Agricultural College, to 
Results show its adaptability. 



Breed Characteristics. It is a pure white corn, very large ears for 



440 



CORN. 




Fig. 156(b). 
SILVKR KING. 



northern sections. The butts and 
tips have been bred to complete 
rilling. The grain is very deep for 
such an early corn. Its maturity 
is assured every year. 



EARLY MASTODON. The Early Mastodon corn originated 
with C. S. Clark, of Huron Count}^ Ohio, to meet the demand for a 
large eared yet early maturing variety. It is reckoned as a loo-day 
corn and has a very wide field of tested adaptability. 

CHASE'S WHITE DENT. 

History. *"The original stock of Chase's White Dent corn 
has been grown in southeastern Nebraska for 30 years or more, 
and was known as the Tucker corn. This old strain of corn 
is quite popular today in some localities. It has a long slender 
ear. a universally white cob, and is an easy picking, hardy corn, 
weu Jn 1804. the drvest season probably ever seen in this section, 

adapted to ^^ ' f j 

iiycr sections this Tucker corn gave an average yield of 25 bushels or thereabouts. 
Noticing the hardiness of this corn we obtained some for seed for the 
next season. In 1894, O. E. Hall, while visiting in Arkansas, chanced 
to find a white corn with a very deep grain and short cob well filled 
at both ends. He brought a few ears home with him and planted 
them. We obtained a few ears of this seed, and planted it with our 
corn in a fertile portion of the field — a rude, but efifective cross. Since 
that the improvement has been by ear selection entirely, until the last 
two years, when the row selection system of breeding has been prac- 
ticed. No pedigree seed for sale however. A son in the agricultural 
school, believing the corn a good corn for show, selected 30 ears for 
the corn show at Lincoln in the winter of 'o3-'o4. This exhibit at- 
tracted such favorable comment as to cause a representative of the 
Nebraska Commission at St. Louis to come to our farm cribs and 
examine the corn and purchase 100 bushels of it for that show, to 
represent the state." 

Breed Characteristics. Owing to the fact that this corn had 
no name, and as the Nebraska Corn Improvers' Association required 
a standard, the corn was named Chase's White Dent and given a 
standard. The standard was adopted by the Association and is as 
follows : 

*F. W. Chase, Pawnee City, Nebraska. 



I 



McAULEY WHITE DENT. 441 

Shape, slowly tapering. 

Length, 9 inches. 

Circumference, 7 inches. 

Kernel, upright. 

Translucent in color, and rough. 

Kernel, shape, broad wedge. 

Cob, white and carries from 14 to 18 rows of grains. 

Per cent of corn to cob, 86. 

This corn has won its own place in the corn world, and has shown weeks^^ *''' 
itself to be one of the fittest. It matures about two weeks later than R^e?' *^y?Uow 
Reid's Yellow Dent. 

WISCONSIN NO. 7.— (Originally Silver King.) *"The foundation 
stock of this corn I received from Mr. William Banks, Burt, Iowa. My 
attention was called to this corn at a corn contest held at Algona, 
where I assisted Professor Holden in judging corn. We awarded Dent, 
first prize to this type of corn and I was so satisfied with the corn came 
that on my return to Wisconsin I corresponded with Mr. Banks, the northern 
exhibitor, and secured 30 bushels of this corn for our use. We car- 
ried on breeding work at our station farm in accordance with the ear- 
to-the-row method and improved the corn considerable in leaf and 
stalk development; also in yield of perfect ears. In 1907 something 
like 17 or 18 per cent of all ears gathered from the field classed as 
seed ears. We have bred to produce as far as possible one ear to 
the stalk, because where it produces only one ear the seed is likely to 
be better than where two or three are produced. Since the corn was 
perfected we began a rapid dissemination of it through our Experiment 
Association. We established some 1500 corn centers in Wisconsin, 
and had members of our Association growing corn for seed purposes 
at these centers. We feel that the equivalent of no less than 12,000,- 
000 bushels of this corn was grown in Wisconsin last year (1907). 
One breeding acre at the station farm produced 98.6 bushels in 1907. 
This is the largest yield ever secured from this or any other variety." 

McAULEY WHITE DENT. Briefly stated, the history of Mc- 
Auley White Dent corn, how it was produced and how it is now 
grown, is as follows : 

**"The original stock from which the corn is now grown was tvvo 

*Prof. R. A. Moore, University of Wisconsin. 
**W. S. McAuley, Americus, Kansas. 



radical 



442 CORN. 

white varieties mixed and planted together. The one variety was 
known as 'The Mortgage Lifter,' rather late, the seed being brought 
from Iowa. The other was known as 'Bulgarian Corn.' an early 
variety which I think came from Illinois. 

After planting the two varieties together for two years I began 
to notice quite a number of stalks and ears that were entirely different 
Result of ^^^^^ ^^^ original of either of the two varieties planted. I then com- 
menced selecting my seed from this stranger, and by careful selection 
of seed the type of ears and stalk has become a distinct and established 
variety. The improvement in ear has been to lengthen it and get 
uniformity in size and a better filled out ear at the tip. The ears as 
now grown are lo 1-2 to 12 inches long, with grains set on a white 
cob of good depth, and running in straight rows from butt to tip of ear. 
The original stalks were very short and stubby. As now grown, 
they will measure from 6 1-2 to 7 feet. It has proved itself a tine 
producer and a very hardy variety." 

GOLDEN ROW. Golden Row originally came from Scioto 
County, Ohio, 34 years ago, but has been grown by Lee Smith & 
Son, of DeSoto, Nebraska, as a distinct variety for the past 28 years. 

Golden Row is of a bright yellow color, with deep grains. The 
ears grow from 9 to 11 inches in length, with a circumference of 7 1-2 
to 8 1-2 inches. Although having a strong tendency to sucker it ma- 
tures in from no to 120 days. 

MAMMOTH GOLDEN YELLOW. Mammoth Golden Yellow 
is a cross of Golden Row and Rogue's Yellow Dent.* The crossing 
occurred 15 years ago. Although requiring from 120 to 125 days for 
maturing, it is a heavy yielding variety. 

NEBRASKA WHITE PRIZE. Nebraska White Prize is a very 
strong heavy rooted variety, stands drought well, and is extra free from 
suckers. The crop matures in no to 120 days and produces an ear 
9 to II inches in length by 7 1-2 to 8 inches in circumference. This 
variety has been bred pure for 38 years. It has been selected to a 
definite type by Lee Smith & Son, of DeSoto, Nebraska, for the last 
32 -years. 

*One of the most widely grown varieties in Nebraska. 



IOWA IDEAL 443 



IOWA IDEAL. **In 1883 Mr. W. D. Kaylon, of Strahan, Iowa, 
purchased several bushels of white corn of a neighbor. The variety 
was known as St. Charles White. In 1894 H. Hilton, of Malvern, ?894 '*°''^ 
Iowa, secured some of this corn. At that time it was a good corn, but 
there were two different types; one a very thick ear with a large 
shank; the other a wdl proportioned ear with a medium shank and 




Fig. 156(a). 

IOWA IDEAL. 

thinner kernel. The best ears of the latter were selected and by close 
breeding the type has become unusually well fixed. In changing the 
type of this corn it was named the "Iowa Ideal." This corn was 
first shown in 1904 by the originator, and won at every place exhibit- 
ed. It has been shown at all of the leading corn shows since and has 
always "been in the money." In shape of ear, trueness to type, uni- 
formity in size, and shape of kernel, this. corn is not excelled by any J^"lf '^ 
other variety. The shape of ear is partly cylindrical, tapering at. tip ; deep^^ 
kernels creamy white, rather thicker than Silver Mine, having no 
thin-grained chaffy ears. The grain is well dented, a pinched crease 
dent, with plump, rounding tips; 20 rows distinctly paired; cob me- 
dium size, white, shank medium, well filled butts and tips; length of 
ear 9 to lOj/S inches; circumference 75^ to 7^ inches; matures in no 
to 115 days. This corn does not come from the Silver Mine, as is 
often thought. 

**From letter of H. Hilton, of Malvern. 



444 



CORX. 



"WILLHOIT." *"\\'e began to breed the Willhoit corn forty 
years ago l)y using corn that my father brought from Kentucky 
in the year 1848. I used the best ears that I could find in the field in 

Th3 result y -r . , ,. 

of the fall, by going through and selcctmg the earliest and best shaped 

40 years > ^ !-> r-> ;■< •"> i 

of ears, free from mixed grains, and at the same time being careful to get 

selection ears that grew out and down from the stalk so as to turn the water 

out of the ears. As you will know, all ears that grow straight up 

with the stalk are filled at the butt in the fall with water and spoiled, 

and also very hard to shuck and never grow even on the stalk. 

"I will say it took me ten years to get the corn to send out ears 
at an even height and to grow on a small shank with just enough 
husk to cover the corn and no more. I was 15 years getting rid of 
the red ears and somewhat longer getting rid of white cobs. We make 
our selection of seed in the fall as we gather, so that we can get the 
best ears from the stoutest stalks, the proper height from the ground, 
and also those not having too much shuck." 

CATTLE KING. Cattle King originated with W. W. Van Sant 
in Mercer County, Illinois, in 1868. In 1877 this corn was brought 
by the originator to Fremont County, Iowa, in the great Nishnabotna 
Valley, three miles northwest of Farragut. Here on a farm of two 
sections Mr. Van Sant and his sons have developed a very large yel- 
low variety which is a heavy yielder. The ears are from 9 to 12 inches 
long and from 73^ to 9 inches in circumference, containing from 16 to 
yeUow 24 rows and weighing 10 to 18 ounces. The kernel is very deep, rather 
broad, closely packed on the cob, with little space between the rows. 
The stalk grows rank, producing in many cases two ears. 

KANSAS SUNFLOWER. The Kansas Sunflower variety origi- 
nated with John Moody, Eudora, Kansas. Although the ears are 
somewhat small in circumference, the length allows a very heavy 
yield. This variety is especially adapted to rather dry soil. The rich 
yellow color and deep kernel make it a good feeding corn, very much 
desired by the farmers. 

MINNESOTA NO. 13. Minnesota No. 13, a very early maturing, 

The most ^^^ heavy yielding variety, has been developed and brought before the 

successful farmers of Minnesota by the Minnesota Experiment Station. The 

Minnesota gars, though but of medium size, show a wonderful uniformity of 

rows, and evidence breeding and selection. The dent is that of the 

dimple and the endosperm is largely horny, showing little of the 

cloudy, white starch at the crown. Nevertheless, there is no sign of 

♦Written Ij.v the originator, WiUis J. Willhoil, after forty years of experience. 



MINNESOTA NO. 13. 



445 



the flinty, round tendency of the kernels, although the tips of ears are 
not so well covered as in the varieties farther south. 

The Gurney Seed Company, of Yankton, South Dakota, introduced 
Minnesota No. 13 into their state in 1906. The success of the variety 
has been amazing. By August 20th of that year the cars in the field 
were safe from frost, and husking began October 8th. Yields in 
general have run from 50 to 75 bushels per acre. 




(Courtesy C. K. llildreth) 



Fig. 157. 



HILDIIETH CORN GROWN IN KANSAS. 



HILDRETH YELLOW DENT. Hildreth Yellow Dent may be 
called a native variety, so to speak, of Labette County, Kansas. The 
originator C. E. Hildreth, of Altamount, Kansas, began selecting and the best 
breeding this corn after 1901, because of the sturdy way in which it g"^ 
withstood the drought of that year. It is a large, rank growing, late conditions 
variety, maturing in 125 to 130 days; ears large; length 9 to 11 inches; 
circumference 7 to 8 1-2 inches; slightly tapering; medium large 
shank and cob ; red cob with 18 to 24 rows of well formed deep, yellow 
grains; well filled out at butt and tip. Grains wedge shape, medium 
in width and indentation ; large germ ; deep and firm on cob, giving 
large percentage of shelled corn. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The corn breeders of the states of the 
Mississippi Valley have responded readily and faithfully when called 
upon for information regarding the breeds of corn originated and de- 
veloped by them. 

Bulletin No. 63 of Illinois, so ably edited by A. D. Shamel, has 
been the source of many facts regarding the older breeds. In short, 
the Illinois breeders have been pioneers in corn breeding. 



446 CORN 

COLLATERAL READING: 

Co-operative \ ariety Tests of Corn in 1902 and 1903. 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 83. 
Seed Corn and Some Standard Varieties for Illinois, 

Illinois Bulletin No. 63. 
Test of Varieties, 

Iowa Bulletin No. 55. 
Varieties for Minnesota, 

Minnesota Bulletin No. 40. 
New Strains of Corn, 

U. S. Report No. 83. 
Variety Tests of Corn, 

North Dakota Bulletin No. 70. 
Variety Tests of Corn, 

Virginia Bulletin No. 165. 
Variety Tests of Corn, 

Indiana Bulletin No. 124. 




CHAPTER XX 

CORN BREEDING 

THE FARMER AS A CORN BREEDER 

Every farmer should grow the greater part of his own seed corn. 
The idea that corn will run out if grown for a long period in a given 
locality is a fallacy There is no corn so well adapted to a given lo- com 
cality as that which has been grown there and given intelligent selec- to^your 
tion for a period of years. Therefore, every farmer should have his j,°est^as 
"Selection Bed" each year, from which he selects his seed corn for f<»indation 
the planting of his larger fields the following year. 

SECURING THE SEED FOR PLANTING THE SELECTION 
BED. In starting the "Selection Bed," seed may be secured from 
three sources : 

1. From your own corn. 

2. From someone in your locality. 

3. From someone not in your locality. 

These will be discussed separately under their respective headings. 

From Your Own Corn. As suggested above, this should be 
the best source to secure the seed for starting the selection bed. Your 
own corn may naturally be expected, after having been home grown 
for a period of years, to be the best adapted to your own peculiar 
climate and soil conditions. 

From Someone In Your Locality, If your own corn is badly 
mixed, with no type, seed having been saved each year without any 
special attention being paid to maturity and type, then, it is very prob- Give this 

*^ S6GCI 3i 

able that a neighbor in the immediate locality, who has been careful germination 
regarding these particulars, will be able to furnish seed which is 
much more desirable than your own. This should be given a germi- 
nation test, that all weak and worthless ears may be discarded. 

From Someone Not In Your Locality. It is to be hoped that 
this will not be necessary. It is the least desirable source of the 
3. When going outside your locality for seed, it is best to keep 



448 



CORN. 



within your own latitude and at very moderate distances, that there 
may be less chance for contrast in soil and climatic conditions. 

It is dangerous to go south, owing to the longer growing season. 
Such seed is likely to produce a crop, which, under normal conditions, 
will not mature satisfactorily, while an early fall would prove disas- 
trous, resulting in a quantity of "soft corn." It is better to go north 
for seed than to go south. Seed secured from the north is accustomed 
to a shorter growing season, producing a smaller stalk and ear than 
that grown further south. Should seed corn be secured from a dis- 
tance, especially southward, it should be only for the planting of a 
small patch and not for planting the general fields. By means of 
proper selection, it will be found to more closely adapt itself to its 
environment, so that in a few years it will have become thoroughly 
acclimated. The length of time depends upon the contrast in the soil 
and climatic conditions between the two localities. 

SELECTING SEED FOR SELECTION BED. As it takes but 
Grade ^^'^^ 12 to 14 average sized ears of corn for the planting of an acre 
*^® ^be'foM ^^'^''^^^ ^ 3 foot 6 i"ch planter is used, with 3 kernels to the hill ; 40 
planting j-q 50 cars will be a desirable number to select. In the first place, 
it is to be expected that a quantity of seed corn has been previously 
selected and stored. In the process of giving this seed corn the germi- 
nation test, it will be noticed that some of it comes with much more 
strength and vigor than the rest. In fact, by careful examination it 
will be found that 40 to 50 ears may be selected in the germination 
box, which have pushed forward during the process of germination 
more rapidly than have the rest. These ears may be laid aside and 
used for planting the selection bed. They should be shelled and 
graded. 

In choosing these ears for the selection bed, it is preferable that 
they be of one type. The best type of ear and kernel is not the same 
for all conditions of environment. In localities where the soil is rich 
and the season long, a large ear with deep, narrow kernels will ma- 
ture, while in the more northern districts, where the seasons are com- 
paratively shorter, a smaller ear with shallower grains, less of the 
pinch dent, and more of the flinty characteristics, must necessarily be 
a more desirable type. 

Isolate SIZE AND LOCATION OF SELECTION BED. For the 

on south average Iowa farm of 160 acres, a three-acre selection bed is of 

or s^u^J^^Ij. sufficient size. This should be preferably an isolated field or in 

the south of southwest corner of the general field. Should there 



CARE OF SELECTION BED. 



449 



be another field of corn near the south line of your own, then 
the selection bed may be placed either to the north side of your 
general field or in the center of it. The seed planted by a neighbor 
just to the south of your general field may not have been selected 
as carefully as your own and also might be of a different 
variety. Therefore, it would be preferable for the pollen from your 
own general field to fall on your selection bed than to have the pollen 
from the field adjoining. The prevailing winds in summer are from 
the south and .-^outhwcst. This is the reason for locating the selection 
bed as above. The selection bed should, if possible, be on fall plowed 
ground, which, if properly cared for in early spring, matures the corn 
earlier. 

PLANTING THE SELECTION BED. The selection bed should 
be planted with the specially selected seed as soon as the ground has 
sufficiently warmed up in the spring and the seed bed has been put in 
proper condition. The corn planter should be used, planting the same 
numl)cr of kernels per hill as in the general field. A good seed bed 
always pays well for the time taken in its preparation. 

CARE OF SELECTION BED. The selection bed should be cared 
for in the same way as the general field; cultivating at least 3 times 
and 4 if pix'^sible. It will demand no special attention until the corn 
begins to put forth its tassels. The tassel is the staminate (male 
fiower) ; the silk is the pistillate (female flower.) There is one silk 
for every kernel. Only one pollen grain is necessary for the fertiliza- 
tion of a silk. In the selection bed there will naturally be found num- 
erous weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers, which, whether or not 
an car is produced, will, with few exceptions, produce tassels which 
will shed their pollen over the field. In order that this pollen may be 
eliminated from the rclection bed, take a sharp knife of good size 
and go into this patch just at the time when the first tassels begin 
to appear, cut down all weak stalks, barren stalks, and suckers, cut- 
ting them close to the ground. This will not only eliminate the 
spreading of this pollen, but will be of further benefit to the field by 
not permitting these worthless stalks to draw nourishment from the 
soil to the sacrifice of stalks which are producing ears. It is very 
properly assumed that a strong appearing, mature ear, may be great- 
ly injured for seed purposes by being fertilized by the pollen from 
weak and unproductive stalks. While the ear that season may not 
show the influence, yet when used for seed the following year, it 
may be expected that "the sins of the fathers will be visited on the 
children to the third and fourth generations." If the pollen from these 
weak and unproductive stalks is permitted to be shed it will undoubt- 



TJse only 
especially 
selected 
ears 



Detassel 
all weak 
and 
barren 
stalks 



Cut 

suckers off 
close to 
the ground 



450 



CORN. 



edly be the father of many of the kernels produced on the strong, 
vigorous looking ears. Weak parentage in the line of our livestock 
has long been considered undesirable for satisfactory results. It should 
likewise be eliminated in corn by means of the selection bed. 

CAUSES OF BARREN STALKS. Stalks that bear no ears are 
called barren stalks. With very few exceptions, they will have a tassel 
and shed pollen the same as other stalks. Barren stalks are not espe- 
cially the weak stalks in the field, but very much to the contrary. They 
may be attributed to several causes, weak seed, insect injuries and 
diseases, unfavorable soil and climatic conditions, and too thick plant- 
ing. 

Weak Seed. While many of the barren stalks are of strong 
and vigorous growth, a few are also found much smaller and weaker 
in appearance. More than anything else, poor seed is responsible for 
the weak stalks that appear in the field. A large number of the weak 
stalks are barren. 

The following table is given in illustration of this: 



Ear No. 


Strong Seed. 
Germination | Stand | 


Barren 


1 Ear No. 


I Weak Seed 

1 termination | Stand 1 


Barren 




S. W. B. 








S. W. B. 






49 1 


6—0—0 


74.3 


1.9 


50 


4—0—2 


74.8 


3.2 


25 1 


6—0—0 


75.2 


.6 


9 


2-4-0 


75.7 


6.3 


28 1 


6-0-0 


77.1 


.0 


40 


4-2-0 


77.6 


4.9 


34 1 


6—0-0 


78.1 


1.8 


37 


4—2-0 


79.1 


4.8 



The ears used in this table are taken from results at 3 county 
stations in different parts of Iowa. 

Weak seed produces weak stalks with poor root development, 
which are seldom able to yield grain. 

Insect Injuries and Diseases. The plant draws the hardest upon 
the soil at the time of putting forth its shoots and tassels. A corn 
plant may not have its root system so injured during its early 
growth, but that the stalk can be very well supplied, and in case of 
rich ground, a strong, vigorous looking plant may often be produced. 
Yet at the time when the plant is ready to put forth its shoot and 
tassel, it is unable to do both because of its roots having been lacerat- 
ed by insect pests. In such cases, the ear is sacrificed, while with few 
exceptions the tassel will be present. 

The foregoing is especially applicable to the corn root worm and 
the white grub. The corn root aphis will accomplish the same re- 
sults. It does not lacerate the roots, but sucks the nourishment. 
Chinch bugs coming on to corn just before shooting time, often suck 



BARRENNESS CAUSED BY DISEASE. 



451 



the sap away to such an extent as to leave the stalk weakened and 
consequent!}^ barren. 




(■ .mtesv of Iowa State College) 
Fig. 161. 



CORN PLANT AFFECTED BY SMUT IN VARIOUS PLACES. 



452 



CORN. 



Usually 

on poor 

soil 



A smut spore may ali.c:ht and develop on the ear. Instead of the 
plant food being used for the kernels, the mycelium of the smut 
withdraws it for use in the formation of the smutted mass. 

Unfavorable Soil and Climatic Conditions. In light soils not suit- 
able for corn production, a large percentage of barren stalks are pro- 
duced. The plants in general, under such conditions show a lack of 
strength. Should this unsuitable condition be accompanied by un- 
favorable climatic conditions, such as an especially wet string with 
cool days and nights so unfavorable for the growth of the young corn 
plants, the amount of barrenness will be increased. 

Too Thick Planting. \Mien corn is planted so thick that the 

soil is unable to supply enough plant food to maintain the stalks 

and at the same time produce ears, a large number of barren stalks 

result. From a given area of land, the largest yield of corn will be 

Due to secured if the amount of seed planted is just within the limit of the 
crowding ' -' 

ability of the soil to support the resulting plants. Beyond this limit, 
the ear is sacrificed and the stalks become smaller. 

The following table will show the gradual tendency toward an 
increasing amount of barrenness as the number of kernels (or stalks) 
per hill increases. 

This is the result of 39 experiments in 12 counties in Iowa, cover- 
ing in some a period of 3 years (1905, 1906 and 1907) — years of 
quite varying climatic conditions. 

EFFECT OF THICKNESS OF PLANTING ON PER CENT BARREN STALKS. 



Kernels or stalks per hill 1 1.0 

Per cent barren stalks 3.2 



1.5 
3.4 



2.0 
3.8 



2.5 
4.6 



3.0 
5.6 



3.5 I 4.0 I 4.5 
8.1 I 9.7 j 11.6 



5.0 
14.5 



Hereditary Influences. There influences are clearly brought out in 
the great variation in the amount of barrenness noted from individual 
ears within a given variety of corn, making it possible to materially 
decrease the percentage of barren stalks by selection. 

The following table will illustrate the above heading. In arrang- 
ing this data the germination test and the per cent stand were selected 
as nearly alike as possible. 



STORY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. | 



Test 



Percent Stand 



Percent Barren 



31 
33 



S. W. B. 
6—0—0 
6—0—0 



61.9 
62.4 



4.6 
14.5 



CAUSES OF SUCKERS. 



453 



HENRY COUNTY 1907. 



Itrsr No. 1 


Test 


i-ercent Stand 


b'ercent Barren 




S. W. li. 






41 . 


5—1—0 


S3,8 


10.8 


49 


4-2-0 


82.9 


.6 


44 


0—6-0 


85.7 


1.7 


36 


1—5-0 


85.2 


26.3 


37 


0—6—0 


80.5 


10.7 


47 


0—6-0 


80.5 


4.1 



MONTGOMERY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. | 


Test 


Percent Stand | 


Percent Barren 




S. W. B. 






42 


6—0—0 


74.3 


4.5 


43 


6-0-0 


75.2 


7.0 


46 


6—0-0 


81.0 


3.5 


32 


6-0-0 


82.4 


1.7 


62 


6-0-0 


71.4 


3.3 


64 


6—0—0 


71.4 


6.0 



CAUSES OF SUCKERS.— How Detected. Corn generally sends 
u|) hut on stalk or culm. Occasionally one or more in addition may 
a|)i)car. hranchin<;" from the lower nodes, near or helow the surface of 
the ground. These are termed suckers. They may have no root system 
whatever, drawini.^' their nourishment entirely from the mother stalk. 
-Attain, they are found with a few roots leading ofT from near the place 
where the sucker is attached to the mother plant. A sucker may or 
may not produce an ear. It seldom does. However, a tassel is gen- 
erally present. The presence of suckers may be attributed chiefly to 
2 causes. 

Thin Planting. Suckering is not so common on light soil. On 
such land, thin planting is desirable. Considerable suckering is fre- 
(|uently iunud where thin planting has been done on rich, heavy land. 
This is due to the amount of available plant food being greater than 
that needed to nourish the single stalk produced from the planted 
seeds. The plant thus in its endeavor to utilize this abundance of 
plant food, sends forth these additional stalks or suckers. Suckering 
is greater in seasons most favorable to the growth of the corn. On 
rich, heavy soils it is better to plant four kernels to the hill, which 
produce stalks bearing ears, than to plant from two to three kernels 
and have in addition a large number of suckers which take consider- 
able nourishment from the soil and return no grain. ' The following 
table will illustrate this point: 

RESULT OF THIRTY-NINE EXPERIMENTS IN TWELVE COUNTIES IN 

IOWA. 



Usually 
produces 
a tassel 



Kernels or stalks per hill. 
Per cent suckers 



1.0 
55.0 



1.5 
30.6 



2.0 
19.7 



2.5 
14.3 



3.0 

8.9 



3.5 

6.7 



4.0 

5.7 



4.5 
4.9 



5.0 
4.0 



454 



CORN. 



Requires 

less time 

to select 

next year's 

seed 



Select 

ears of 

tnedlnm lieighc 



A Steady decrease is shown in the per cent of suckers as the thick- 
ness of planting increases. Where only one kernel was planted, 55 
per cent of suckers developed. 

Hereditary Influences. All \aricties or strains of corn within a 
^■aricty do not sucker lo the same degree. For example, the Legal 
Tender corn, a good pi^oduccr and very popular in southwestern Iowa, 
is inclined to sucker more than the majority of our dent varieties, while 
on the other hand, the Silver Mine is freer from this tendency. 

Individual ears within a variety differ greatly as to the number 
of suckers produced. This will be clearly shown in the following 
table : 

STORY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. 



Test 



Percent Stand 



I Percent Suckers 



31 
33 



S. W. B. 
6—0—0 
6—0—0 



61.9 
62.4 



0.8 
2.3 



MONTGOMERY COUNTY 1907. 



Ear No. 



Test 



Percent Stand 



IPercent Suckers 





S. W. B. 






42 


6-0-0 


74.3 


13.0 


43 


6-0-0 


75.2 


21.7 


46 


6—0—0 


81.0 


18. S 


32 


6—0-0 


82.4 


28.3 


62 


6-0-0 


71.4 


18.7 


64 


6-0-0 


71.4 


22.7 



SELECTING SEED EARS FROM SELECTION BED. The 

latter part of September or the first part of October is, in general 
throughout the corn belt, the proper time for selecting the early matur- 
ing seed ears. Having the selection bed in which the best seed has 
been planted, it will be known just where to go in search of the best 
seed ears for next year's planting. It will then be unnecessary to walk 
over the large fields in search of the seed. When selecting the early 
maturing ears, the stalk on which they are found should be examined 
likewise. 

Examining Ear and Stalk. A study of the growing ear on the 
stalk is very important. The contrast in height will be found to be 
reproduced in a marked degree from year to year; likewise the regu- 
larity of rows and uniformity of kernels together with the early ma- 
turing qualities. Four feet from the ground to the ear is a desirable 
height. A lower position is unhandy in husking. If set higher, there 
is an increased tendency to falling because of wind. A short, thick 
shank bespeaks vigor and security of the ear from breaking oflf. Too 
large shank shows a lack of breeding and is usually accompanied by 



EAR TOO HIGH ON STALK. 



455 



a large cob. An upright ear is to be criticised because rain enters the 
husks and rotting ensues. A moderately drooping ear is to be chosen 
rather than one in a loosely hanging position. 

The parent stalk, if weak and very slender, is undesirable. The best 
ears are not formed on stalks of this character. This inherited weak- 
ness will appear in the next generation. Stockiness at the base, with 
a gradual decrease in size upward, indicates strength and vigor, sta- 
bility in storm, and in general 
more natural strength than a stalk 
of similar height the same size 
throughout its length. Excessive 
foliage may indicate a tendency to 
produce fodder rather than grain, 
but usually a heavier yielder is a 
gross feeder. Only the well ma- 
tured ears should be selected for 
seed. An examination of the ears 
at this period is difficult, because 
the husks have to be largely re- 
moved or pulled back in order to 
ascertain the type and regularity 
of the kernel. At this time, ker- 
nels need not be taken out to ex- 
amine their depth or to determine 
the shelling percentage. Later on, 
during the process of germination, 
this feature can be more clearly 
observed. Yet the shape and type 
of the ears selected can be noted 
with definite characters in view, 
even in the field. Size and ma- 
turity are essential points of 
value. The largest possible ear 
that will mature is the best for 
any locality. However, maturity 
should never be sacrificed for size. A smaller, well matured ear is 
more desirable for seed than a larger immature ear. From this selec- 
tion bed may be selected the seed needed the following year for 
planting the large field ; likewise the choicest ears kept for the next 
year's selection bed. 




(Courtesy of Iowa State College) 

Fig. 159. 

EAE TOO HIGH ON STALK. 



Some of 
tbe ears 
from this 
bed oan 
be planted 
in large 
field 



456 



CORN. 




(By courtesy of Iowa State College) 
Fig. 160. 
STALKS SHOWIXG EARS AT PROPER HEIGHT. 



SELECTION BED— SECOND YEAR. 457 

SELECTION BED.— (Second Year).— In the spring of the second 
year, greater care and better judgment will be required in order tc 
advance. The 50 ears now selected should possess a uniformity of 
type and show strong powers of germination. A repetition of the 
steps of the first year should be carried on the second. Some criticism be used 
of this method for continued use has been made. The argument set 
forth is fear of inbreeding and consequently a loss in productiveness 
In a block of three acres properly handled, inbreeding to a harmful 
extent will not take place for many years, if at all. If the selection 
bed, as outlined, were carried on by every farmer in the corn belt, 
it would add millions of dollars to the annual income of the corn 
producing states. 




CHAPTER XXI 

CORN BREEDING 

FROM THE STANDPOINT OF REMAINING PER- 
MANENTLY IN THE BUSINESS 



Higher 

prices 

may be 

expected 

for seed 

corn 



There are some farmers and even large growers of corn who recog- 
nize the value of good seed corn, but would rather purchase it each 
year than endeavor to breed a small patch of their own. This is 
especially true of men who have a number of tenants. Such men are 
are willing to pay three dollars per bushel for seed of good quality 
and vitality. The price of marketable corn and that of beef and pork 
enables them to do this economically. In other words, breeders of 
pure bred corn will come to be a part of American agricultural de- 
velopment. The opportunity for advancement in this line of work is 
limited only by the capabilities of the man. 

Experiment Stations have tried for a number of years a number 
of different methods in the breeding of corn. The prevention of in- 
breeding and at the same time fixing type and desirable characteristics 
without curtailing the yield, are problems which the corn breeder 
must solve. Because of higher prices received for pure bred corn, 
the corn breeder can afford to spend more time and money in turn- 
ing out his product. 

A plan is here outlined which is brief and yet covers the main 
points in question. It is the combination of the desirable methods 
advocated by practical breeders and theorists. The figures used are 
merely for illustration and comparison. The scale upon which a breed- 
er caries on operations will necessarily determine the details of the 
work at hand. The plan is presented as the most successful so far 
as present knowledge of corn breeding is concerned. Improvements 
will come and are hopefully looked for. 

THE CORN BREEDER'S PLAN. Outside of the work at the 
various Experiment Stations, there had been little done along the line 
of corn breeding; nor in fact, in grain breeding in general, including 
improvement by selection. 



FIRST YEAR TRIAL PLOT. 



459 



The number who may be called "Corn Breeders" in the sense that 
we speak of our various breeders of live stock, are surprisingly few 
when we consider the great importance of this crop in its relation 
to the total annual production of the farms of the United States. 

It is to be expected of the corn breeder that he take greater care 
in the selection of his first or foundation stock. Fifty years is a de- 
sirable number with which to start. These may be selected in the 
same manner as with those discussed under "Farmers' Selection Bed." 
When the 50 cars are determined upon, they should, of course, be the 
very best that ctnild l)e secured for the purpose. 

FIRST YEAR.— Trial Plot. The entire ear will not be planted as 
in the lurmer case, but merely a portion of each in accordance with 
the following outline. 



Very few 

corn 

breeders 



Too much 
care can 
not be 
taken in 
selection of 
foundation 
stock 



I M 



k».-4ferj 



_mi 



d luwa State College) 

Fig. 162. 

PLANTING INDIVIDUAL EARS BY HAND. 



Select a piece of ground located as per the directions under "Farm- 
ers' Selection Bed." Mark off a piece 50 hills square, the rows having 
same width as planter, that it may be cultivated with the rest of the 
field. This will then give a piece of land of 50 rows in width, each seiectjon^ 
row containing 50 hills. Number the rows from one to 50; likewise for breed- 
the ears. One hundred and fifty kernels may now be taken from one 
side of each ear. The rest of the ear must be very carefully put away 
where nothing will bother it. Some of them are to be mated the 
following year; everything depends upon their being safely kept. 
The 150 kernels from each ear will just be sufficient for the planting 
of three kernels in each of the 50 hills to the row. The planting 



460 CORN. 

should be done by hand. It is to be remembered that the kernels from 
ear No. i are to be planted in row No. i ; ear No. 2 in row No. 2, etc., 
until each ear will be represented in a row whose number coresponds 
to the number of the ear. The summer care need be no different from 
that given to the remainder of the field. The barren stalks, weak stalks, 
and suckers should be eliminated in like manner as described under 
"Farmers' Selection Bed." 

Keep a Record. Each row should be carefully studied. A 
count of the stand should be made. Note the comparative strength 
„ of the ."Stalks produced in each row, the percentage of barren stalks 

record \veak stalks, and suckers ; also the presence of smut, the height of 

fTon\ the ' ' r ' » 

beginning [\-^Q ^ar on the stalk, together with the early maturing qualities. The 
great contrast in the individuality of different ears of corn as shown 
in their production will be clearly seen. Complete notes should be 
made on each row, embodying in detail all the foregoing points men- 
tioned. These notes will be of assistance when it comes to mating the 
cars the following season. In the fall, the produce of each ear should 
be harvested separately, and carefully weighed. For general seed 
purposes this seed may be very properly saved, especially if chosen 
from the highest yielding rows which show early maturity. 

Contrast in Yield. It will be found that there is a decided 
difference in the productivity of ears of corn, even though from all 
outward appearances they are very similar, and test equally strong 
in the germination box. The yield per acre may be easily computed, 
remembering that there are 3,556 hills made by a 3 foot 6 inch plant- 
er and 3,240 made by a 3 foot 8 inch planter, the two widths moi;t 
Yielding commonly used in the corn belt. Ears may vary in production as 

power J J r 

can only much as from 15 to 100 bushels per acre on similar ground under the 

ascertained same Cultivation. Close examination of the original ears will nev^'r 
by ° 

trial reveal these facts of yield. The individuality of each ear is unlocked 

only upon trial under field conditions. The value of this individuality 

then stands in results per acre. 

Individuality of Ears. 

The productive power is now definitely known. For example, ears 
No's I and 50 may have yielded 90 bushels and 100 bushels respective- 
ly, while No.'s 30 and 40 may have produced in turn 20 and 35 bush- 
els. The locality and fertility of the soil will determine the standard 
from which to base selections. Some breeders choose all the ears 
which yield above 70 bushels. Some set the basis lower. Assuming 
that, from the original 50 ears, 30 have all kept in good shape and 
yielded well, and have proved after a test the second spring that their 



CORN REGISTRY. 



461 




o 

< 
Pi 

cu 
O 

O 

5 
. w 

o 
o 

fc. 
o 

Q 
Pi 
o 
o 

K 



462 



CORN. 



vitality is unimpaired, the real breeding of corn begins. 

SECOND YEAR. — Mating Individual Ears in the Breeding Block. 

Becatise of their high yield, 90 and 100 bushels respectively, ears No.'s 
pianung the 1 and 50 will be planted together in a breeding block 20 hills square. 
''"K In the odd numbered rows, 1-3-7-9-11-13-15-17-19. P'^nt kernels 
from ear No. i; in the even numbered rows, 2-4-6-8- 10- 12- 14- 16- 18-20, 
plant those from ear No. 50. Three kernels per hill is again prefer- 
able. These should be planted by hand though some breeders practice 
planting with a planter. These rows will not usually tassel at the 
same time. Should they do so, there is little difference which row is 
detasseled. If any preference is made, the strongest row of plants 
should be detasseled, thus making them the mother stalks. When 
the stalks from ear No. i, that is, the odd numbered rows, begin to tas- 
sel before those of ear No. 50, the even numbered rows, then detassel 
the rows representing ear No. i, and vice versa. All weak stalks, 
barren stalks, and suckers should be removed, as in "Farmers' Selec- 
tion Bed." Silking usually occurs a few days later than tasseling. 
Hence, the silks of the detasseled rows will be in a receptive state 
when the pollen of the later tasseling rows is ripened. 




( t'uui'tcs.v Funk Bros.) 

Fig. 164. 
EFFECT OF INBREEDING. 

The two rows in the center are dwarfed because of inbreeding. 

It will be seen that these 2 rows have now been mated. The 
ears from the detasseled stalks should be saved for seed and the ears 
More than ^T^om the Other rows discarded from further breeding operations, be- 
cause they are inbred. This covers the care for one block 20 hills 
square. Where extensive breeding operations are carried on, a number 
of such isolated plots will be necessary. 

Advantages of the Breeding Block. 
I. Inbreeding is prevented. 



one set 

of plots 

necessary 



DETASSELING CORN. 



463 



2. Definite knowledge of the yielding powers of each ear is as- 
certained. 

3. Systematic mating is established, wdiereby the most desirable 
characteristics of two ears can be combined and intensified. 
The sire is known. 




(Courtesy of J. W. Darnel) 
Fig. 165. 

DETASSELING CORN. 
Pull out the tassel; do not cut it. 



How to Detassel. Tasseling time usually comes during the har- 
vest season. The farmer has plenty of work on hand. But just then 
the most important step in the process of advancement in corn breed- 
ing must be made. Every day for from seven to ten days new tassels 
will appear. Detasseling is a process which requires time and pa- 



464 



CORN. 



tience. The tassels sin mid always be pulled and never cut. Some 
farmers go through the patch on foot, bending the stalk over and hold- 
ing it with one hand near the top joint, pulling the tassel from its place 
tpssrts without injuring the plant. In rank growing corn, a man astride a 
injuring horse that is muzzled to prevent destroying the corn, can pass between 
''^""^ the rows and very rapidly detassel. The number of times that the 
block must be gone over depends upon the rapidity of the appearance 
of the tassels. When simply detasseling to eliminate the barren stalks, 
it will be found profitable to cut such stalks off at the surface of 
the ground. 

THIRD YEAR.— The Increase Bed. The "Increase Bed" is the 
next step. This will be started the third year. In the breeding blocks 
mentioned above, which were 20 hills square, there will be 200 hills 
in each which have been detasseled. Three kernels being planted by 
' hand in each hill, it is safe to assume that from the detasseled stalks 
in each breeding block, as many as 400 ears will be secured, or at least 
4 bushels of ears entirely free for the pollen shed from the tas- 
sels borne on their own stalks. This amount of seed will generally 
be secured from each breeding block. In studying these breeding 
blocks, very complete data should be taken of both the tasseled and 
detasseled rows. While the seed from the tasseled rows is not saved 




(.Courtesy Successful Farming) Fiff. 1()6 

"STALKS A-FOOLIN' 'ROUND ALL SUMMER, DOIN' NOTHIN'." 



No. 1 hns a fairly Rood oar, weishiiiK K! ounces: one stalk per hill on one acre of 
eround, each producinfc an ear of this weieht would vield 50 bushels and 56 pounds at the 
rate of 70 pounds per bushel. Xo. 2 weighs 10 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 31 
bushels and 52 pounds. No. 3 weighs 9 ounces; one stalk per hill would vield 28 
bushels and 40 pounds. No. 4 weighs C ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 19 
bushels and 3 pounds. No. 5 weighs 3 ounces; one stalk per hill would yield 9 bushels 
and 30 pounds. No. 6 weighs one ounce; one stalk per hill would vield 3 bushels and 
12 pounds. No. 7 produced the ear that is not there. Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 7 are worse 
than worthless in the field, on account of their producing pollen, which is distributed 
over the field. 



LOCATION OF BREEDING BLOCK. 4G5 

to plant in "increase bed," being very largely inbred, yet it is 
desirable to keep a detailed record of their performances as 
they are the sire rows in the breeding blocks. It will be 
found that some of the breeding blocks are yielding much °om ^^^'^ 
higher than others, and in general the detasseled rows yield- r^^!^^}^^ 
ing higher than the tasseled rows. From the ears produced on 
— say two of the highest yielding breeding blocks (breeding blocks 
No.'s I and 5, for example), select 25 to 30 of each. It is very likely 



rows IS 
saved 



'm 



;;x.^ 



h 




(By courtesy of Punk Bros.) 

Fig. 167. 
HAND POLLINATED EAR. 

that not more than 30 out of the 400 ears will be especially suitable. 
The two sets of ears must not be mixed, but should be given a germi- 
nation test, the strong ones then shelled and graded ; in fact, prepared 
in accordance with "Selection and Preparation of Seed Corn for 
Planting." It will thus be seen that we now have two lots of — say 25 
ears each ; one lot, the best of the 400 from the detasseled rows in 
breeding block No. i (from ear No. i, with ear No. 50 as sire) ; the 
second lot, the best 25 ears from the detasseled rows in breeding block 
No. 5 (from ear No. 10, with ear No. 25 as sire). The "increase bed" 
will now be planted, the following or third year, as follows : 

Location, Planting and Care. Select if possible another isolated 
plot of three acres. The seed from one lot (taken from 
breeding block No. i, selected from detasseled ear No. i, 
with ear No. 50 as sire), should be put in the planter box on one 
side only ; the seed from the second lot (taken from breeding block 
No. 5, selected from detasseled ear No. 10, with ear No. 25 as sire), 
should be put in the other planter box. The three-acre plot should 
now be planted so that the ears representing seed from lot No. i and 
Lot No. 2, respectively, shall be placed in alternate rows. This will 
be the increase bed and should be cared for in respect to detasseling 
in exactly the same way as outlined under the heading "Mating Indi- 
vidual Ears." In addition to this, all the weak stalks, barren stalks. 
and suckers, should be cut out. While the increase bed is not a mat- 
ing of individual ears, it is, however, mating the progeny of high 



466 CORN. 

yieldinj; individual ears. IMie rows in the "increase bed" should be 
numbered. We will then have the odd and even numbered rows as 
discussed under "Matini; Ears in r.reedini^- Block." and will be handled 
in the same way. The seed ])lanted in the even numbered rows is 
all the progeny of car Xo. i (with ear No. 50 as sire) ; then the seed 
planted in the ^nUl numbered rows is all the progeny of ear No. 10 
(with tar No. 25 as sire). The alternate rows thus representing seed 
tracing back to the same parentage. Either the odd numbered rows 
or even numbered rows should be detasseled in accordance with the 
directions under heading "^Mating Individual Ears in Breeding Block." 
The increase bed is thus a means of continuing the breeding along a 
definite line, whereby a record of the parent may be had, together with 
data regarding their performances. This is a method which may be 
followed in the production of pure bred seed corn with wdiich a pedi- 
gree of performance .may be given. 

This is an outline of but one increase bed. As many more may 
be had ar. the breeder desires. The increase bed furnishes the very 

Value of 1 1 r 1 J o 1 

breeding i)cst place for sccuriug seed corn for i)lanting the general fields. Seed 
block ' '^ ",.",,. 

corn of this quality would be in great demand in any locality at most 

satisfactory prices. 

CONTINUING INDIVIDUAL EAR TEST AND MATING IN 
BREEDING BLOCKS. It is well that the corn breeder continue the 
individual test from year to year. The ears for this purpose may be 
secured from the increase bed. Such ears, of course, will already have 
a record back of them. A strict record should be kept wdien they go 
to the individual ear test. The breeding blocks of 20 hills square 
should also be continued from year to year. The corn sectired for 
this purpose may come from two sources : 

1. The very best of the cars produced in the breeding block o{ 
the previous year. Do not use an ear which has not been 
tested. 

2. Ears secured from the in(li\i(hial car test. 

A policy that may well be adopted by all corn breeders, is not to 

mate two ears of corn in the breeding block until they first have been 

8hcuid"be .'?'^'*^'" ^" individual ear test as to their performance. Therefore, no 

given individual car of corn should be taken from the increase bed to mate 

all ears 

^*einK '"^ ^'^^' breeding block until it has first Ix'en given a trial in the in- 
piantea dixidual row test. Bv so doing, the corn breeding will be kept at 

in the . !-. !-i r 

brrediu^ the highest Standard. It will be seen that such a svstem as herein 

blOCK ' 

outlined for the corn breeder, wdiile not taking a great deal of extra 
time, demands the most careful attention of a competent person. 



PURE BRED AND HIGH GRADE SEED. 



467 



Outline to Be Followed By the Corn Breeder. 

The corn breeder's method as herein outlined, is as follows: 

First year, trial plot of individual ears. 

Second year, trial plot-^breeding block. 

Third year, trial plot — breeding blocks — increase beds. 

In addition to the above will be the general fields which, partly 
during the third year and entirely so the fourth, may be planted from 
the pure bred seed from the "increase bed." 

PURE BRED AND HIGH GRADE SEED. The corn produced 
in the increase beds may be classed as '"pure bred" seed corn. As a 
definite line of breeding has thus been followed out, the parentage of 
the ears may l)e thus traced back to the individual ear row test. The 
corn breeder will, no doubt, have other of his larger fields in corn. 
the seed of which was secured from that which was left over from the 
breeding blocks after he had selected the best of it to put in the "in- 
crease beds." In this geijeral field he has done no detasseling, but 
merely has a mixture of this high yielding corn secured from the vari- 
ous breeding blocks in which he was mating different high yielding 
ears. The corn produced in these general fields may be classed as 
"high grade seed." These two terms, "pure bred" and "high grade" 
may be looked upon a synonymous to the similar terms used with 
live stock ; in one case, as with "pure bred" it is possible to give a pedi- 
gree ; in the secoml, it is not. It will thus be seen that when selec 
tions made from the progeny of high yielding ears are brought to- 
gether in a common field, the breeding identity is lost track of; the 
product, however, may be called "high grade seed." When ears are 
mated, as in the "increase bed," it is possible to give them definite lines 
of breeding and it may thus be classed as "pure bred" seed. 

SOME POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED BY THE SEED CORN 
BREEDER, The successful seed corn breeder must be able to dis- 
pose of his product. Many men of intelligent observation and love 
for plant breeding can develop a desirable type of corn. Few men are 
fitted for salesmen. Judicious advertising solves the question of se- 
curing customers. The farmer buys many things because of the wide 
circulation of farm papers giving descriptions of offered articles. The, 
corn breeder should be very careful, supplying only such seed as may 
be depended upon to give satisfactory results. This insures patronage 
in the future. The new law passed by the State Legislature of Iowa, 
provides that seed corn sold to patrons by seed firms, must show a 
germination test of 94 per cent. Among the best dealers, this will 
have a tendency to induce them to adopt better methods of storage 
and a definite system of testing each ear sent out. It will, in fact, put 



Pure breed 
Feed 



High 
grade 
seed 



468 



CORN. 




(Courtesy of Henry Field) 

Fig. 168. 
INDICATIVE OF THE GROWTH OF THE SEED CORN BUSINESS IN 

IOWA. 




Fig. 169. 
CORN CRATED READY FOR SHIPMENT. 



HAND PICKING SHELLED SEED CORN. 



469 



the business of breeding seed corn on a scientific and legitimate b'asis^ 
More corn is shipped in the ear now than ever before. Much of it 
is still shelled, especially with the seed companies. Crates containing com 
one bushel each of ear corn are now used by all retailers of seed corn, should be 
An attractive crate with the sender's name in a conspicuous place 
creates interest wherever it goes. A station agent will be much less 
liable to allow a slatted crate of corn to remain on the platform in a 
storm, than he would were the corn in a closed box. Mice are less 
liable to hide in a conspicuous place, such as between the ears of an 
open crate. 



pnt on a 
scientific 
and legit- 
imate basis 




(Courtesy of Henry Field) 



Fi?. 170. 



HAND PICKING SHELLED SEEDCORN. 
The corn is carried over a belt. 



470 



CORN. 



Satisfying patrons over a wide expanse of territory is impossible 
if only one breed of corn is grown. The scx>ner the limitation regard- 
ouri^u^s ing the successful culture of a given type or variety is known to the 
var/cty dealer, that much stx^ner the corn can be improved to fit the limited 
district. If the dealer live in southern low^a, he cannot expect a breed 
which he has established in that rich, loamy soil to prove satisfactory 
to growers in southern Minnesota or northern Nebraska; at least not 
until it has become thoroughly acclimated in these districts, which 
may take several years. By keeping in touch with each and every pur- 
chaser of seed, the results obtained will point to further exploration 
of that field or its entire abandonment. 




(By courtesy of Funk Bros.) Fig. 171. 

BUTTING AND TIPPING BY MACHINERY. 



COLLATERAL READING. 



471 




(Courtesy of Funk Bros.) 

Fig. 172. 

INTERIOR VIEW OF A LARGE SEED CORN WAREHOUSE. 



COLLATERAL READING 



Crossed Varieties of Corn, Second and Third Years, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 17. 
Detasseling Corn, 

Nebraska Bulletin No. 25 
The Farmer as a Corn Breeder, 

Article by Thompson, Editor Farmer's Tribune. 
Breeding^ Corn. 

Farmers' Bulletin No. 210. 
Directions for Breeding of Corn. 

Illinois Circular No. 74. 



CORN. 

Tn(|iiirv Concerning:: Xunihcr of I'arren Stalks in Illinois Corn 
Fields, 

Illi..ois Xo. 57 (Circular). 
Tillcrin.t:^ pf the Corn IMant. 

Nebraska Bulletin Xo. 57 
Breeding- Corn, 

]-'arniers' Bulletin No. 267. 
Corn IVeeding and Registration, 

Ohio Circular No. 66. 
Imyirovement of Corn. 

Virs^inia Bulletin No. 165. 
Increase the Productiveness of Corn, 

U. S. Department Bulletin No. ^17. 

Indian Corn, 

Kansas Bulletin No. 147. 




CHAPTER XXII. 

CORN BREEDING 

MECHANICAL METHODS OF SELECTING SEED CORN 
FOR IMPROVED CHEMICAL COMPOSITION 



Willi care, corn growers or farmers can learn to pick out protein 
seed corn by dissecting and examining a few kernels from each ear 
by means of a pocket knife, selecting for high protein seed the ears 
whose kernels show a large proportion of horny parts. High protein 
kernels contain much horny part, with little white starch, while with 
low protein kernels the reverse is true. 

This method is already used by practical corn breeders and with 
a very satisfactory degree of success. For example, in selecting seed 
corn by this method, Mr. Ralph Allen, of Tazewell County, Illinois, 
obtained seed ears for the year 1902, which were 1.46 per cent higher 
in protein than the rejected ears from the same lot, and for the season 
1903, his selected seed ears contained 1.58 per cent protein more than 
the cars which he rejected. 

The method proposed some years ago by Professor Willard, chem- 
ist of the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, of picking out 
high protein seed by simply selecting for large germs, enabled one, 
as a rule, to make some gain in protein; but the gain is very much 
greater when the proportion of horny part is considered. In fact, from 
experience at the Illinois Station, it was found that the selection for a 
large portion of horny part is of very much more trustworthy index 
of high protein than is the size of the germ. Corn is often found with 
large germs which is actually low in protein because of a small per- 
centage of protein in the remainder of the kernel. The fact that only 
20 per cent of the total protein of the kernel is obtained in the germ is 
evidence of the uncertainty of obtaining high protein seed corn and 
of the improbability of making any very considerable gain in protein 
by this method of selection. This difficulty was well understood by 
Professor Willard. as will be seen in the following quotation from 
the Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin No. 197, Page 63. 

"There are undoubtedly great differences in the protein content of 
the part of the kernel, exclusive of the germ, and it is conceivable and 



High protein 
kernels 
have much 
horny 
part 



Large 

germ 

not 

always 

a sign 

of high 

protein 



474 CORN. 

not improbable that a laro:o i::::crm. thou.^h in itself tending to produce 
hisjli protein content, might be overcome by the low protein of the 
remainder of the kernel." (Protein is substituted for nitrogen in this 
quotation). 

Of course, if one picks out corn with large germs and at the same 
time either consciously or unconsciously selects those ears whose 
kernels contain a large proportion of horny part, he may make con- 
siderable gain in protein, but in such case the gain should not be at- 
tributed S(^lclv to the large germs. 



The method of selecting seed corn for high oil content on the basis 

e germs of larsje sjerms is certanly well founded, because of the fact that more 
Wgh oil .-> t^ J ' . , . , 

kernels than 8o per cent of the total oil of the kernel is contained in the germ. 



Speaking of the correlation of oil and protein, Dr. Hopkins says : 
"All of the data gathered tends to prove that as the percentage of 
protein increases: in corn, the starch decreases, while the oil remains 
almost unchanged, and that we may increase or decrease the percent- 
age of oil or of germ in corn without markedly affecting the percent- 
°"etween age of protein. This was the conclusion drawn when 163 ears of corn 
protein were analyzed more than 6 years ago. The different strains of corn 
kernel which we have finally produced in our regular corn breeding work, 
furnish us excellent material for ascertaining what effect is produced 
upon the oil content of corn b}' breeding for a higher or lower pro- 
tein content and vice versa. What effect is produced upon the protein 
content by breeding for a higher or lower oil content may also be as- 
certained. 

"In 1909, we planted rows called the 'mixed plot' with 2 kinds 
of corn in every row, one kind having been bred for 4 years for 
high oil content, the other (originally from the same variety and stalk) 
having been bred during the same 4 years for low oil content. 
These 2 kinds of seed were planted in every row just far enough 
apart so that the identity of the plants individually could be known 
as they grew during the season. The corn from each of the 10 rows 
was harvested in 2 lots, one being corn from high oil seed, and 
the other lot being from low oil seed. The 2 lots from each row 
were kept separate, the one being labeled 'Corn from the high oil seed' 
and the other 'Corn from the low oil seed'." 

The percentages of oil and protein as contained in these different 
lots of corn are shown in the followinsf table: 



SELECTION FOR OIL AND PROTEIN. 



475 



OIL AND PROTEIN IN CORN HARVESTED FROM THE MIXED OIL PLOT 

IN 1900. 





Low Oil 


Side 


1 High Oil 


Side. 


How No. 


1 Percent Oil 


Percent Protein 


1 Percent Oil 


1 Percent Protein 


I 


3.93 


10.07 


5.61 


10.06 


2 


3.78 


9.26 


6.75 


9.05 


'i 


3.73 


10.21 


5.88 


9.12 


4 


3.75 


8.47 


5.99 


9.65 


5 


3.89 


9.39 


5.71 


10.08 


C 


3.80 


9.77 


5.91 


10.23 


7 


3.60 


9.80 


5.60 


9.91 


8 


3.58 


9.65 


5.84 


10.32 


9 


4.22 


9.18 


5.68 


9.15 


10 


3.27 


9.26 


5.82 


9.32 


Average 


3.81 


9.51 


5.78 


9.69 



This (lata is considered very reliable, both kinds of corn having 
been j^rown during the same season and in exactly the same soil, and 
each individual sample whose composition is shown is a composite 
sample representing many ears. The average difference in oil con- 
tent between the high oil side and the low oil side is 1.97 per cent 
oil, while the average difference in protein is .18 per cent. Consider- 
ing the percentage of protein in the corn is twice as large as the per- 
centage of oil, it will be seen that there is less than 5 per cent of a 
perfect correlation between the oil and protein. 

Attention is called to the fact that in selecting seed corn by chemi- 
cal analysis for high protein, there is a tendency to increase, not only Horny 
the horny starchy part (which contains more of the total protein than |uit|° 
any other part of the corn kernel), but also to increase the horny glut- oil 
en and the germ, both of which, though small in amount, are rich 
in protein, and consequently there is a tendency for the oil to be in- 
creased not only in the germ, but also in the horny gluten (aleuron 
layer) which is quite rich in oil. This is the evident explanation as to 
why there is a slightly higher degree of correlation between oil and 
protein in our pedigreed strains of corn than there is in ordinary 
corn which has not been so bred. 

Every low oil ear contains a small percentage of germ and every 
high oil ear a high percentage of germ. Attention is called to the 
fact that the high oil germ is even richer in oil than would be indicated 
by the high germ percentage as compared with the per cent of oil 
and germ in low oil corn, indicating that the breeding for high oil 
has not only increased the oil by increasing the percentage of germ 
(which contains most of the oil), but that there is also an increase ui 
the percentage of oil in the horny glutenous part. Similarly, the per- 
centage of oil in the kernel has decreased even more rapidly than the 



476 



CORN. 



pcrccntaoe of iicrni in tlu' low oil corn. The-^c rcsult.s arc very apparent 
in the table which gi\cs this data. 

EFFECT OF BREEDING ON COMPOSITION OF GERMS 

AND ENDOSPERMS. .\s already explained, lo ears were selected 
for each of the four different strains of corn, low protein, high protein, 
low oil and hi.t^h oil, and 25 kernels were taken from each of the 40 
ears, the germ being separated from the rest of the kernel, which we 
call endosperm. After the i)crcentage of germ as determined for each 
individual ear, the germs frt)m each lot of 10 ears were put together 
to make 2 samples, each sample representing 5 ears. The. endo- 
sperms were likewise put together, so that we had duplicate samples 
of both germs and endosperms for each of the 4 different strains. 
These samples were analyzed chemically and the results are given in 
the following table: 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF GERMS AND ENDOSPERMS FROM LOW 

PROTEIN AND HIGH PROTEIN CORN AND FROM LOW OIL 

AND HIGH OIL CORN. 



Variety 


Part of Kernel 


1 Percent Protein 


1 Percent Oil 






i 


18.05 


33.59 


Low Protein, 


Germs, 


17.96 


34.G0 








20.85 


34.99 


High Proteiu, 


Germs, 


/ 


21.65 
21.70 


36.02 
25 01 


Low Oil. 


Germs, 


) 


21.71 
17.55 


24.62 
41.76 


High Oil 


Germs, 




17.84 
5.69 


41.75 
.83 


\jO\v Protein, 


Endosperms. 




5.68 
13.67 


.1)1 
.76 


High Protein, 


Endosperms, 




13.92 
9.13 


.72 
.52 


Low Oil, 


Endosperms. 




9.14 
10.62 


.51 
1.07 


High Oil, 


Endosperms, 




10.10 


1.24 



"The results show in a very striking manner the effect of breeding 
in changing the composition of the diff'crcnt physical parts of the kern- 
els. Thus, the germs from the low oil corn contain about 25 per cent 
of oil, while those from the high oil contain nearly 42 per cent of oil. 
As stated above, breeding to change the oil content not only changes 
Percentage the percentage of germ, but it also changes the percentage of oil in the 
oil In the germ. It should also be noted that endosperms from the high oil corn 

germ Is ' t> 

also contain about twice as much oil as tho':e from the low oil corn, al- 

raised , i , r •, • 

tliougli tlie percentage of oil is very small, even in the low oil corn, 
and this oil is largely contained in the horny gluten.''* 

Perhaps the most marked and valuable results are shown in the 
percentages of protein contained in the endosperms from low protein 

♦Bulletin 87 of Illinois. 



HIGH AND LOW OIL CORN. 



477 



and b.it^li ])rc,tcin corn ; the endosperm from the low protein 

corn contains less than 6 per cent of protein, while that from the 

liiij;]! ])r()tein corn contain almost 14 per cent. These results, together ^, '''*^«"^^"" 

with the ones given previously, would seem to show conclusively that fn^" "°* 

to select high protein seed corn by mechanical examination, we should dSe*"° 

select principally for a large proportion of the more nitrogenous part seiectJoo 

of the endosperm ; that is, the horny part. To select entirely for large 

germs will have only a slight effect upon the protein content of the 

corn, although it will produce a rapid and marked increase in the oil 

content. 

Referring again to the ])receding table, it will be seen that the en- 
dosperms from the high oil corn contain about i per cent more pro- 
tein than those from the low oil corn. On the other hand, the germs 
from the high oil corn contain less protein (17.7 per cent) than those 
from the low oil corn (21.7 per cent), the difference being 4 per cent 
protein in favor of the low oil corn. These results were to be ex- 
pected, even from a study of the analyses of the 163 ears reported 
in Illinois Bulletin No. 55 in 1899, which showed that large germs 
were naturally even richer in oil than the size of germs would indicate, 
the increased oil tending to decrease the percentage, though not the 
actual amount of protein in the germ. 

TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF GERM AND OIL IN HIGH AND LOW 

OIL CORN. 



Ear No. 


Low Oil Corn ] 
Percent Oil 1 Percent Germ. | 


Ear No. ] 


High Oil Corn 
Percent Oil | Percent Germ. 


4,474 


2.68 


8.05 


4,374 


7.10 


12.90 


4,4S(; 


2.G5 


8.13 


4.411 


7.01 


12.73 


4.491 


2.G0 


7.92 


4.412 


6.87 


13.73 


4.495 


2.59 


7,39 


4.417 


7.01 


14.50 


4,509 


2.53 


7.06 


4,421 


7.02 


14.65 


4.512 


2.45 


7.89 


4,423 


6.95 


13.83 


4.521 


2.12 


7.13 


4,436 


7.17 


14.10 


4.537 


2.40 


7.57 


4.441 


7.37 


14.53 


4.548 


2.54 


7,83 


4.448 


6.78 


14.35 


4.555 


2.65 


8.47 


4.462 


6.74 


13.03 



It will also be seen that high oil corn contains nearly twice as 
much germ as low oil corn and that the germs from the high oil corn 
are nearly one and one-half times richer in oil than the germs from 
the low oil corn, but that, although the high oil germs contain a 
larger amount of total protein because of their increased size, they 
are considerably poorer in percentage of protein than the low oil 
germs. 

Attention is called to the fact that, although the physical parts of 
the corn kernel which contain almost all of the oil, viz ; the germ and 



High oil 

corri 

nearly 

twice IE 

much 

?eini 

a? 

low nV 

corn 



478 



CORN. 



lioniy i::liilcn, alsi.> contain nui.si of the ash, yd a hij^h percentage of 

the ash in the germ is associated with a low percentage of oil, and 

^^"^ tains \ i-^'- versa, indicating that the ash content of the germ (which contains 

cfTb^ tlic major part of the ash of the entire kernel), bears a more constant 

"'' relation to the oil-free material in the germ than to the whole germ. 

By computing, we find that the oil-free germs contain the percentages 

of ash as given in the following, assuming the oil to contain no ash, 

which is apj)roximately correct. 



PERCENTAGE OF ASH IN GERMS. 



From Low Protein Corn 

From High Protein Corn 

From I-cw Oil Corn 

From High Oil Corn.... 



In Fresh Germs 



In Oil-Free Germs 




15.34 

15.54 
15.57 
15.74 
17.51 
17.72 
15.02 
15.12 



Breeding for high or low protein produces no marked effect upon 
the ash content of either the germs or the endosperm, nor does it have 
any effect upon the oil content of cither of these, and only slightly 
inHuenccs the protein content of the germs. The low protein germs 
contain about i8 per cent of protein and the high germs about 2i per 
cent. The results show that such breeding produces exceedingly 
marked effects upon the protein content of the endosperms, the low 
tein endosperms containing about 6 per cent and the high protein 
endosperms containing about 14 ])er cent protein. In this connection 
it is well to remember that the corn kernel onl}' contains about II 
per cent of germ, while the endosperm amounts to about 89 per cent 
of the kernel. The significance of this becomes more readily apparent 
by an examination of the following table, which show.^ where the 
protein cndosi)erms containing about 6 per cent and the high protein 

PROTEIN IN ONE HUNDRED POUNDS OF CORN. 



Names of Parts 

Low Protein Corn, 

Per cent of corn. . . . 

Per cent of protein. 

Pounds of protein... 
High Protein Corn, 

Per cent of corn . . . . 

Per cent of protein. 



In Germs 



In Endosperms 



9.33 

18.01 

1.68 

11.44 
21.25 



90.67 
5.69 
5.16 

88.56 
13.80 



Pounds of protein 


.| 2.43 


12.22 


Difference 


.| .75 


7.06 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 479 

W'c thus find as a result of corn breeding, that in the seventh gen- 
eration \vc have a maximum difference of only .75 pounds of protein 
in the germs from 100 pounds low protein and high protein corn, 
while in the endosperms of these two kinds of corn, we have a differ 
ence of 7.06 pounds protein in 100 pounds of corn. In other words, 
in changing the protein content of corn, the effect produced in the 
endosjK'rm amounts to almost ten times the eft'cct produced in the 
germs. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This chapter has been drawn almost 
entirely from bulletin Xo. 87 of Illinois, the work of Professor C3a-il 
(i. Iio])kins. about the only complete treatise available. With the 
idea that the students and farmers of the ^^'est would profit by the 
introduction of these facts directly, we have taken the opportunity 
to present them as they are. together with the oliservations of the 
author. 

COLLATERAL READING. 

Analvses of Corn, with reference to its improvement, 
Kansas I'ulletin Xo. 107. 

Improxement of the Chemical Composition of the Corn Kernel. 
Illinois lUdletin Xo. 55. 

Structure of Corn Kernel and Composition of its Parts, 
Illinois P.uUetin Xo. 87. 

Directions for the Breeding of Corn, including Methods for the 
Prevention of Inbreeding, 
Illinois P.uUetin No. 100. 

Selecting and Preparing Seed Corn, 

Iowa Bulletin Xo. JJ. 
Ten Years of Corn Breeding, 

Illinois Bulletin Xo. 128. 



INDEX 

A 

ALsorption of water by plants CO" 

Acreage of corn, increase in 4 and b 

in United States, ISCG to 1907 4 and b 

of barley, 190G 5 

of buckwheat, 190G 5 

ol cereals in the United States, 190C 5 

of corn, 190G r 4-5 

of flax, 190C 5 

of oats, 190G 5 

of rice, 190G 5 

of rye, 19i)G *. 5 

of wheat, 190G 5 

Africa, production of corn in 10 

Age of seed as affecting germination CI 

Agricultural leaders in Mexico 30 

Agricultural Colle_?es in Mexico 31 

Air in the soil C4 

Air, plant food from C3 

Alcohol from corn 341 

cost of 342 

Amount of water used in production of one ton of dry matter 52 

Angumois grain moth 259 

Aphis 242 

Argentine Republic, climate of 39 

export trade in corn 40 

increase in corn production 9 

prices of corn 4 ) 

production of corn 39 

soil 29 

time o' corn planting 40 

varieties of corn 40 

Army worm 24!> 

Arriugement of corn leaves ^^^ 

Ash in corn •^^■^ 

Australasia, production of corn in 1^ 

Austi-ivHunsary, production of corn in • 41 

Awakening of agriculture in Mexico 30 

B 

Ri^teria. nitrogen gathering ';> 

Barley, acrea'^e of in 1900 '* 

Barrenness, causes of j^^ 

diseases J^^ 

hereditary influences .- J^-' 

insect iniuries ^"^^ 

unfavorable soil and clim:tic conditions ^oz 

weak stalks J^j! 

Bill Bug ^n 

Blight X'^.l 

Boards of Trada ' |X 

Chicago ^If 

hours for regular trading ^^^^ 

Omaha o-.p 

sign language o-,^ 

terms used ^ 



INDEX. 

Boone County white corn 432 

breeders 434 

breed characteristics 432 

history 432 

Botanical characteristics of corn 43 

Brace roots 45 

Brazil, production of corn in 40 

Bread of Mexican natives 31 

Breeding corn 447 

effect on composition 47G 

for improved chemical composition 475 

methods of 444-447 

selecting seed for • 448 

Breeding plot, barren stalks in 450 

care of 449 

location of 449 

planting 449 

second year 457 

size of 449 

selection of seed for 448 

Bucket shops 335 

Buckwheat, acreage of in 1906 5 

Burrill's bacterial disease 232 

B> products of corn, feeding value of 3Gi 

Of the corr grain 345 

tip ca, ; 345 

hull 345 

horn 'uten 345 

horny siarch 345 

white starch 345 

germ 347 

C 

Calcium as a plant food 70 

Calibrating the planter 141, H3 

Capacity of cars 273 

Carbon as a plant food 73, 76 

Carbohydrates in corn 351 

Cars, capacity of 273 

lining 272 

preparing for shipment 272 

shortage of 209 

size of 272 

Carbon 73-75 

Cellulose from corn :!i3, 41 

Cement floor for corn crib 207 

Center of corn production 17 

Cerealine 335 

Checked corn, cultivating of 18S-1S9 

Chemical changes caused by water 08, 69 

Chemical composition of corn 350 

ash 353 

carbohydrates and fat 351 

crude fiber 352 

protein 350 

Chemical products of corn 338 

Chicago as a terminal market 279 

prices of corn in 279 

Ciiinch bugs 243 

Classification of markets 263 

Classification of corn 42 



INDEX. 

Climate of Mexico 31, 33, 37, 3G, 38 

of Argentina Republic 39 

Climate in relation to corn growtti 78 

effect upon distribution 78 

effect upon character of growth 79 

effect on composition ; SO 

effect on yield 80 

varieties adapted to 80 

Cobs as fuel 342 

Cob pipes : 342 

Composition of corn, chemical 350 

effect of climate on SO 

influence of soil on 91 

of fodder corn 3G9 

of corn silage 402 

Columbus discovered corn 1 

Commercial marketing of corn 2G2 

products of corn 332 

grades of corn 28G-288 

Commissions for buying and selling corn 290 

Conditions of germination 61 

temperature G3 

vitality 61 

moisture 62 

oxygen G4 

Constitution as a factor in plant growth 66 

Continuous growing of corn 92 

Continents, production of corn by 10 

Co-operative elevators 2G7, 268 

Cost of inspecting corn 290 

of storing corn 295 

of filling silos 399 

of growing corn 212-227 

of silage 398 

Countries purchasing export corn 306 

Countries distribution of corn in 10, 11 

production of corn in 10, 11 

rank in corn growing 10, 11 

Corn and climate 'i^ 

and cob meal for hogs 361 

alcohol 341 

botanical characteristics of 43 

bran ^38 

belt, a rotation for 99 

breeding for farmers 478 

as a business 458 

contrasts in yield 460 

cross-pollination 465 

detasseling 464 

hand pollination 465 

Corn breeding, increase bed 464 

individual row records 460 



mating ears 



462 



trial plot • 459 

cellulose r ^^^ 

cribs 206 

crisp ^; 

cultivation by Indians 2 

early, in America 2 



flakes 
flour . 



337 
.336, 340 



INDEX. 

fodder, feeding value 378, 36G 

losses in 377 

machinery for harvesting 371 

methods of feeding 374 

methods of harvesting 370 

planting corn for 366 

production in Iowa 382 

shredding 375 

vs. silage 37& 

time of harvesting 367 

growing, acreage devoted to 4 

experiments in Mexico 39 

growers' reminder 144 

ground, preparing 147 

harrowing 174, 176 

planking 163 

preparation before planting 161-169 

rolling 166-167 

husks, uses of 344 

in hands of farmers, March 1, 1901, to 1907 262 

maggot 235 

meal 332 

as a food 333 

Corn meal for stock 361 

exports of ' 334 

feeding value of ■. 354 

mastication of 355 

palatibility 355 

preparation for feeding 356 

oil 338 

meal 363 

cake 363 

plant structure of 43 

root growth of 44 

flower of 53 

staminate or male 54' 

pistniate or female 55 

planting, time of, in Argentine Republic 39 

root worm, northern 247 

aphis 24? 

rubber 33e! 

soils adapted to 90 

shelled in shipping 27? 

shortages in shipping 274 

starch 339, 340 

syrup 340 

trains in New Mexico 30 

Cribs for corn 206 

Cross breed in corn 461 

Cross bred seed corn 4G6 

Crude fibre in corn 352 

Cultivation of corn in Mexico 33-36 

of the corn crop ISS 

early 18S 

before corn is up 190 

depth of 192-194 

frequency of 194 

of checked corn 188-199 

of drilled corn 188-199 

of listed corn 199-201 

with tha weedcr 191 



INDEX. 

Cultivators, kinds of 195-198 

for listed corn 200 

Curling of corn 53 

Cut worms 238 

D 

Dent corn (Zea Indentata) 1 43 

Depth of cultivating checked corn 192-194 

Depth of cultivating listed corn 300 

Depth of planting corn 18C-187 

Derivation of word "corn" 1, 4G 

Detasseling corn 4C3 

Development of ear 55 

of kernel 59 

of roots 45 to 55 

Digestibility of corn 355 

Discing 149, 151, 1G3 

Diseases of corn 229 

Distance between corn rows 187 

Distillery slop 341 

Distillers" grains 3G4 

Distribution of corn, effect of climate on 78 

Distribution of corn in Europe 1 

Drilled corn, cultivating 188-1S9 

Drilling corn ■ 182 

Drouth resisting character of leaves 53 

Early cultivation of corn 188 

Early settlers, corn cultivation by 2 

Early varieties 3 

Ear of corn plant, development of 55 

position of 58 

Ear worm 258 

Elevator managers, qualifications of 205 

Elevators, line 260 

co-operative 2G7, 2GS 

independent 200 

Enzymes C3 

Epidermis of corn stalk 48 

Europe, distribution of corn in 1 

Europe, production of corn in 10 

Evolution of corn 3 

Export corn, drying of ■ 304 

Export markets 305 

Export trade in corn in Argentine Republic. 40 

Exrorts of corn meal ^34 

Exports of corn, amount of 30G 

countries purchasing 300 

freight rates ' 307 

from Southern ports f^^ 

prices of 307 

trade certificates 306 

F 

Fattening dry lot cattle on corn 300 

Fat in corn ^^^ 

Federal inspection of grain 29 < 

Feeding corn fodder 



INDEX. 

Feeding value of corn by-products jGI 

of corn fodder ' '^1^ 

of corn '•^"» ^ 

Fertilizers ''^ 

Fibro-vascular bundles in corn stalks 49-50 

Filling silos 398 

Flax, acreage of in 19(»(j 5 

Flint corn (Zea Indurata) 42 

Flower of corn plant 53 

pistillate or female • • • 55 

staminate or male 54 

Fodder 3G6 

Fodder corn, shocking 373 

yield of 373 

Foreign countries, production of corn In S-9 

Foreign seed corn 102 

Freezing, effect on on vitality of seed corn 115-llS 

Freight rate from terminal markets 305 

on export corn 308 

Frequency of cultivating corn 192-194 

Future of corn growing in Mexico 34 

Futures 318 

delivery prices 327-330 

how deliveries are made 325 

necessity of 318-320 

settling without delivery 320 

settlement prices 327 

settlements 327 

when delivery is unnecessary 323 

6 

Germination of corn 61 

as affected by age of seed 61 

conditions of 61 

of immature kernels 62 

temperature for 69 

time required for 64 

Glucose 340 

Gluten feed 363, 338 

meal 362 

Grades of corn 288 

commercial 286-288 

Grain weevil 259 

Grasshoppers 258 

Growing corn continuously 93 

for show purposes 182 

cost of 212-227 

Growth of corn, effect of climate on 78 

relation of light to 72 

for silage, investigation of 393 

of kernel o9 

of plants, essentials of Co 

of roots 47 

H 

Harrowing corn 189-191 

listed corn 200 

Harvesting corn 204-202 

fodder 3G7 

time of 367 

method of 37? 



INDEX. 

time of 203 

method of 203 

for silage 391-396 

machinery 371 

seed corn 102-103 

Heating of stored grain 395 

High grade seed corn 467 

Hogs, corn cob meal for 361 

Hominy 335 

chops 364 

Humus 93-94 

I 

Illinois, valuation of corn crop in 1907 22 

as compared with other cereals 22 

Independent elevators 266 

Indiana, valuation of corn crop in 1907 16 

as compared with other cereals 27 

Indians, corn culture by 2 

Insects attacking corn 229 

injurious to stored corn 259 

Increase of corn production in the United States 12 

Inspecting corn 283-286 

cost of 290 

Inspection of grain, federal 297 

objections to 301 

of corn at terminal markets 280-281 

Iowa Silver Mine corn 430 

history of 430 

breed characteristics 431 

breeders 432 

percentage of various crops in 23-24 

value of corn crop in 1907 22 

as compared with other cereals 22 

percentage of cropping area by counties 23-24 

J 

Judging corn 406 

points in 41 ' 

general appearance 

maturity and market conditions 

shelling percentage 

trueness to type 

vitality 

practical hints in 

June Corn production in Mexico 

Kansas, value of corn crop in i"' 

as compared with 
Kentucky, value of con 
as compared w 
Kernel, development of 

growth of 

structure of 

Kinds of cultivators 



Labor in Mexico 
Leaf, mid rib of 

sheath 

rain guard . 



INDEX. 

Leaves, arrangement of 51 

as a feed 34;j 

drouth resisting character of 53 

figuring surface of 52 

structure of 51 

Learning corn 424 

breed characteristics 424 

breeders 425 

history 424 

Legal Tender corn 434 

breed characteristics 434 

breeders 43G 

history of 434 

Light and plant growth ; 72 

r?lation to corn growth 72 

Line elevator systems 2CG 

Listed corn, cultivation of 199-201 

cultivators for 200 

depth of cultivating 200 

harrowing 200 

liisting corn 183-185 

Looses in corn fodder 377 

Lowest record yields of corn 15 

M 

Maizena 33G 

Manure 97-9S 

Marketing, commercial 2C2 

mixing corn for 289 

Markets, classification of 203 

for corn 2G1 

inspection of corn at 280 

primary 2C3 

terminal 270 

eport 303 

Mastication of corn 355 

Methods of harvesting corn in Mexico 38 

of unloading corn 204 

Mexico, awakening of agriculture in 30 

agricultural colleges in , 32 

agricultural leaders in 30 

character of soil 38 

climate of 31-33-3C-37-3.S 

corn growing experiments in 31 

production in 31-39 

Aguascalientes 30 

Coahuila 32 

Colima 37 

Chihuahua 32 

' .■ Durango 33 

." ." Lower California 32 

.■ y • Nuevo Leon 34 

/ •" .• Sinaloa 33 

•' / ,• .' Sonora 32 

.• .• .• .' .• Tamaulipas 35 

.• ." •" .' Vera Cruz 38 

.• .■ ■' .' Yucatan 39 

'Mexico, corn." trains in 30 

■* / oiiltivation of corn in 33-3G 

•' .• future •of-cern growing in 37 

.■ /methq^^-of' harvestin'^; corn in 38 



INDEX. 

planting corn in 32-35 3G 

plateau districts of 32 

price of corn in 31-33-35-37-39 

labor in 30 

peonage system in 30 

railroad facilities in 38 

rainfall in 33 

South American farmers in 34 

varieties of corn in 32-37-3C-40 

yield of corn in 37-39 

Midrib of leaf 52 

Milling by-products of corn 334 

Missouri, value of corn crop in 1907 ' 2G 

as compared with other cereals 2G 

Miscellaneous plant foods 7G 

Mixing grain for marketing 289 

Moisture, effect on vitality of seed corn 115-118 

testing corn for 292 

N 

Nebraska, value of corn crop in 1907 26 

as compared with other cereals 20 

New Zealand, production of corn in 10 

Nitrogen 75 

as a plant food 73-7G 

gathering bacteria 75 

North America, production of corn in 10 

Northern Corn Root worm 247 

Number stalks per hill 173 



Oats, acreage, in 190G 5 

Objects of cultivating corn .- 189 

Ohio, value of corn crop in 1907 28 

As compared with other cereals 28 

Oklahoma, value of corn crop in 1907 28 

as compared with other cereals 29 

Osmosis G7 

Oswego 336 

Oxygen as a plant food 73 

P 

Palatability of corn 355 

Paper from corn stalks 342 

Parts of corn kernel, separation 347 

Peonage system in Mexico 30 

Perfect stands 181 

Phosphorus 75 

Photosynthesis 73 

Physical changes caused by water G8 

Pith of corn stalk 49 

Planting corn 167-1G8 

for silage 350 

for fodder 3G6 

depth of 171-172 

distance between rows ". 172 

in Mexico 32-35-36 

time of 1C9-171 

thickness of 174-179 

Planter, calibrating 141-143 



INDEX. 

Plant foods 73 

from air 73 

from soil 74 

carbon 73-76 

calcium 76 

nitrogen 73-76 

oxygen 73 

other plant foods 76 

phosphorus 76 

potassium 76 

Plants, essentials for growth of 65 

Platea,u districts of Mexico 32 

Plowing 151-161 

depth of 153-155 

fall 155-158 

objects of 151 

points of merit in 152-153 

spring 158-159 

sod 159-161 

Pod corn (Zea tunicata) 42 

Pollination 57 

Pop corn (Zea everta) 42 

Position of ear 58 

Potassium 75 

Precipitation, relating to corn growth 71 

Production of corn in the United States 17 

by continents 10 

by counties 8-9 

by districts 17 

center of 17 

from 1866 to 1907 13 

bushels per capita 14 

increase in 12 

total 14 

in Austria-Hungary 41 

in Argentine Republic 39 

in Brazil 40 

in Mexico 31-39 

Preparing cars for grain 2 

Preparation of corn ground before plowing 147 

before planting 161-109 

of ground for corn 147 

cutting the stalks 143 

disking 149-162 

harrowing 164-166 

rolling 166-167 

Preserving corn silage 337 

Prices of corn in Argentine Republic 40 

at Chicago 279 

in Mexico 31-33-35-37-39 

of export corn 307 

Primary roots 45 

markets 263 

Products of corn, chemical 33S 

commercial 332 

fermentation 341 

from cob 342 

from kernel 332 

Proper temperature for germination 69 

Progress of corn growing in Roumania 9 

in Argentine 9 



INDEX. 

Protein in corn 350 

Protoplasm 44 

R 

Railroad facilities in Mexico 38 

Rainfall, relation to corn growing 81-89 

in Mexico 32 

Rainguard of leaf 52 

Rank of countries in production of corn 10-11 

in distribution of corn 10-11 

of states in average yield of corn lG-19 

Reid's yellow dent corn 426 

breed characteristics 426 

breeders 429 

history of 426 

Relation of center of production to prices 21 

of temperature and precipitation to corn growing 71 

of rainfall to corn growing 81-89 

of temperature to corn growing 89 

Reminder for corn growers 144 

Replanting corn 182 

Riley's Favorite corn 436 

breed characteristics 436 

history of 436 

Root cap 44 

brace 45 

central cylinder of 47 

development of 44-45 

extension in dry weather 53 

growth 47-44 

conditions affecting 47 

hairs 46 

pressure 67 

primary 45 

secondary 45 

structure 46 

Rotation 95 

necessity of 95-96 

Roumania, increase in corn production 9 

Rust of corn 233 

S 

Samp 335 

Sampling corn at terminal markets 284 

Score card for corn, 

as used for local short courses 416 

by Iowa State College 408 

purpose of 408 

use of 400, 415 

Secondary roots 45 

Seed corn breeders, points for • 467 

butting and tipping 470 

buying 102 

effect of freezing on vitality of 115-118 

effect of moisture on vitality of 115-118 

high grade 467 

pure bred 4^^ 

selecting '^^^ 

shipping _ ^^^ 

storing lOG-115 

testing 119-140 



INDEX". 

cost of 138 

filling the box 12G 

fitting up testing box 123 

need of 119 

results of 128 

time of 123 

Selection bed 448 

Selecting seed corn 473 

show corn ' 419 

Shipping corn, claims for damages 274-275 

Shocking fodder corn 373 

Show corn, growing, selecting 419 

Shredding corn fodder 375 

Shrinkage of corn 207-210-29G 

Silage 385 

amounts needed 397 

compared with corn fodder 404 

compared with hay 403 

composition of 402 

cost of 398 

history of in Europe 385 

in United States 38G 

investigations of the growth of corn for 393 

losses in silo 400 

manner of planting corn for 398 

preservation of 387 

value of 401 

varieties of corn for 390 

time of harvesting corn for 391 

time to plant corn for 389 

Silos, filling 398 

size of 397 

Size of silos 397 

Smut 229 

feeding 232 

yield of corn as affected by 231 

Soils adapted to corn 90 

Soil, air in C4 

of Argentine Republic 39 

influence on composition of corn 90 

map of Iowa 91 

plant food from 74 

South American farmers in Mexico 34 

South America, production of corn in 10 

Southern ports, exports of corn from 303 

Speculation in grain 317 

Starch feeds 3C4 

Stalks, number of per hill 173 

Stalk fields, value of 3SI 

Stalk borer 24C 

States, rank of in average yield of corn IC-IS 

Stock in unhusked fields 381 

Storing corn 205-209 

Storing seed corn lOC-llo 

Stored corn, shrinkage of 29G 

insects injurious to 259 

Stored grain, heating of 295 

Storage of grain at terminal markets 29 

warehouses, regular 295 

of corn at terminal markets, cost of .^ 295 

Structure of leaves 51 

of corn roots 46 



INDEX. 

of corn stalk 45; 

epidermis 48 

\. oouy wall 49 

pith '.'.[[ 49 

Supply and demand of corn 21 

Surface of leaves 52 

T 

Teosinte 1, 44 

Temperature in relation to corn growth G9, 89 

Terminal markets 2TG 

storage of grain at 293 

sampling corn at 284 

Chicago 279 

freight rates from 305 

Terminal-export markets 303 

Testing corn for moisture 292 

Testing seed corn 119, 140 

Texas, value of corn crop in 1908 27 

as compared with other cereals 27 

Thickness of planting 174-179 

Time of plant ing corn 184-186 

Time required for germination 64 

Tortilla ( Mexican bread) 31 

Transpiration 67 

Trade certificates for export corn 308 

Turgidity 67-68 

U 

United States, i:roducticn of corn by districts 17 

center of production in 17 

valuation of production in 20 

production of corn in 8-9-12 

Unloading corn, methods of 204 

V 

Value of corn crop in Indiana in 1907 26 

in Iowa in 1907 22 

in Kansas in 1907 27 

in Kentucky in 1907 28 

in Ohio in 1907 28 

in Oklahoma in 1907 28 

in Missouri in 1907 2(i 

in Nebraska in 1907 26 

in Texas in 1907 27 

Value of stalk fields 381 

Varieties of corn 424 

Boone County White 432 

Cattle King • 444 

Chase's White Dent 440 

Golden Eagle 436 

Golden Row 442 

Gold Mine 444 

Hildreth's Yellow Dent 445 

Iowa Ideal 442 

Iowa Silver Mine 430 

Kansas Sunflower 444 

Learning ^24 

Legal Tender 434 

Mammoth Golden Yellow 442 

McAuley's White Dent 441 



INDEX. 

Minnesota No. 13 445 

Nebraska White Prize 442 

Reid's Yellow Dent 426 

Riley's Favorite 436 

Shenandoah Yellow 438 

Silver King 439 

White's Superior 436 

Willhoit 443 

Wisconsin No. 7 441 

Varieties of corn adapted to various climates for fodder 367 

in 1814 3 

in 1840 3 

for silage 390 

W 

Water and plant growth 66 

absorption bj' plants 66 

amount used in production of one ton of dry matter 52 

in corn 353 

physical changes caused by 68 

uses in plant growth '. 66 

Web worms 239 

Weeder, use of in corn production 191 

Weighing charges at Chicago 293 

Wheat, acreage in 190G 5 

Wilt of corn 233 

Wire worms 230 

Y 

Yields of corn in Mexico 3G-37-39 

effect of climate on 80 

in United States 15 

average 15 

highest 15 

lowest 15 

per acre 15 

Z 

Zea Amylacea (soft corn) 43 

Zea Amylea Baccharata (starchy sweet corn) 43 

Zea Canina 3 

Zea Everta ( pop corn ) 42 

Zea Indentata ( dent corn) 43 

Zea Indurata ( flint corn ) 42 

Zea Tunicata ( pod corn ) 42 

Zea Saccharata (sweet corn) 43 



Ml -1 '■3'''* 




LIBRARY OF CX)NGRESS 

lllllllllll 



DOOEbfil'^BTa 



